My name is Kristina and I would really appreciate some help to proofread my essay on workers' conditions in the garment industry in India. Any help would be very much appreciated!

Kristina 

 

 

What Civil Society Does to Make the Garment Industry Fairer

A Minor Field Study Conducted in Tirupur, India about the Conditions in the Garment Industry and

How Civil Society Actors Work to Improve Them

1 Introduction

1.1 International Trade

International trade is growing and so is global inequality. The profit from international trade tend to be divided in an unfair way, where countries and companies in the North earn money because of the fact that producers in the South work under poor conditions and with a salary that is not enough to support the workers and their families. According to classical free trade theory each country should produce and export products that they are relatively good at producing, so called comparative advantage. They should then trade with other countries that are relatively good at producing other products, a win-win situation. But in reality international trade is rather a win-lose situation where trade produces poverty for one part and wealth for one part, instead of wealth for both parts.[1] This way the growing international trade has produced greater inequality instead of equality.

Ankie Hoogvelt describes how factories today can be built in almost any part of the world because of the low cost of transporting products and information about them. This has led to that companies place their industries where it is cost-competitive. In the post-Fordist society Hoogvelt describes it’s no longer the workers that buy the products the factory they work in produces. To pay the workers a decent wage is thus not necessary for their own market, as it’s in the North. This might have a huge impact on the workers’ conditions in places that export. There is a risk that they are exploited just to give companies in the North world higher profit.[2]

India is one of the countries in the South that is exporting to the North’s markets. One major export item is garments. The readymade garment sector is a sector in which India is seen to have a high degree of comparative advantage. Here India can compete with low wages and cheap prices. But this is possible due to bad working conditions that wouldn’t be accepted in factories in the North.

Today, product life cycle for garments has decreased as consumers in the North buy clothes more often due to more cheap clothes available. This has lead to that modern garment brands have to be flexible. Therefore they tend to outsource garment manufacturing to independent factories, rather than having their own factories. This has lead to a relation between the brands and factories that is characterized by:

-          “A fast time to market;

-          Few vertically-integrated relationships (i.e. between brands and their suppliers’ suppliers);

-          Downward price pressure as brands strive to meet the needs of discount retailers; and

-          Short-term relationships as brands move sourcing around to find lower prices.” [3]

These factors have had a negative impact on workers’ conditions, as improved conditions aren’t a priority.[4]

In the 1990s the first “sweatshop” scandals where exposed by labour rights groups. “Sweatshops” is a term used for garment factories that violate human rights by low wages, long working hours and/or inhumane working conditions. The first accusations against global garment brands were met by denials of responsibility by the global brands. They meant that they couldn’t be held responsible for the working conditions in factories they didn’t own. But labour right groups continued their work and eventually managed to get garment brands to include labour standards into their sourcing requirements.[5] Consumers have also gained awareness about the conditions in the garment industry and have begun to demand improvements by the global brands.

Most large brands have now introduced “codes of conduct” to ensure that their suppliers follow certain labour standards.[7] These codes are voluntarily adopted and are used to show the consumers what the company does to take social responsibility. Supporters see codes of conduct as an alternative for civil society to protect workers’ rights. This should be done through the market power of informed consumers. A basic problem with codes of conduct is that the workers are usually not being heard in the process. Also, it is difficult to control if the codes are followed by the producers. The codes are also often too vague to make a real difference.[9]

There are also laws in India that regulate the conditions for garment workers. The laws prohibit too long working hours, child labour, bounded labour etc. The problem is that it seems like they are not always followed by the factories.[10]

Trade unions and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in India are also working to improve the conditions for workers in the garment industry. Trade unions can make improvements through strikes and collective bargaining. Unfortunately, the possibilities for trade unions to influence are limited. Most workers are not members of any trade union. For the workers it can be a risk to join unions as threats and harassments occur. Also, in many factories trade unions are not permitted. Another aspect is that trade unions in India are political and thus enforces their members to decide and show which political party they support. Corruption and too few employed is a reason that it’s difficult for the unions to live up to their promises. That in turn makes worker trust less in that the unions can make a difference. NGOs can influence in different ways; through information campaigns addressing consumers or politicians or through more direct help to the workers like education and information about their rights. For local NGOs, a problem can be that they can’t address the overlaying structures like international competition.

Fair trade is another initiative to reduce unfair trade relations. It’s built upon the assumption that there are consumers who are willing to pay a higher price if that gives the workers better conditions. The hope is that fair trade can be a way to avoid the problems that NGOs and trade union face as well as the problems with codes of conduct.[11]

But there are still reports about bad conditions for the workers in the garment industry in India. Both excessive working hours, child labour and bounded labour has been found in India by Fair Wear Foundation.[12] There is thus a need to understand what possibilities and problems different actors have to improve the conditions.

1.2 Aim and research questions

The aim of this essay is to understand the ways civil society work to improve the workers’ conditions in the garment industry. This is done by finding out what the workers’ conditions in the garment industry are like and what is being done to improve these conditions so that the trade will be fairer. The research questions are:

-          Are the conditions in the garment industry in Tirupur statutory and fair? Are the workers satisfied with the current conditions?

-          What possibilities and problems are there for civil society actors in Tirupur to improve the workers’ conditions?

These questions are interesting in different ways. There is a lack of studies comparing different ways of working to improve the workers’ conditions in the garment industry. The answers can help us understand by whom workers’ condition issues are addressed, what problems they have and how the problems can be overcome.

1.3 Delimitations

To answer my questions I have conducted a field study in Tirupur, India. India is one of the biggest garment exporters, and Tirupur is a main city for producing garments. My essay will be delimited to the situation in Tirupur. However, I hope to be able to draw some general conclusions about the garment industry.

I will delimit my research to present time, and to some extent the future. I will also delimit my studies to the export industry, leaving out the factories producing for the local market. I also delimit my research to actors within civil society (even though I use a broad definition). I don’t discuss, for example, politicians’ possibilities to influence. I’ve also limited my research to the local civil society in Tirupur, excluding global and international civil society actors.

The essay focuses on what is currently being done to improve the workers’ conditions rather than what could or should be done.

1.4 About the Garment Industry in India and Tirupur

A big share of the garments produced in India is being made in the state of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu is situated in the most southern end of India. The most important garment producing region in Tamil Nadu is Coimbatore district, in which we find Tirupur. More than 80% of the garments produced in Tirupur are made for export. Numbers from the year 2000 tells that 28.2% of the total Indian apparel export is made in Tirupur.[13]

The garment industry is very much visible in Tirupur. There are approximately 4000 factories in Tirupur; many of them rather small. Hundreds of thousands of people are currently working in the garment industry in Tirupur. All over the city textiles and garments are transported between the different units in the process. The garments produced in Tirupur are mainly knitted garments. The first step in the process is to purchase yarn and then knit the yarn into cloth. This is done in a knitting unit. After that, the cloth will be transported to a dying unit (if dying is needed) for dying. After that the cloth will go through the compacting process where the cloth will be dried and straightened. The next step is the production unit where the cloth is cut, stitched, labelled, checked, ironed and packed. If needed, the garments will also be taken to printing units, embroidery units, washing units, compacting units etc. Finally the garments are shipped to their destination.[14]

1.5 Outline of the Thesis

After this introduction about the problem of this essay and the situation in India and Tirupur I will answer my research question one at the time. I’ll first present the methods I used to answer the question and then continue with the theoretical background and the results.

2 Are the Conditions in the Garment Industry Statutory and Fair?

2.1 How to Answer the Question

2.1.1 Field Study

I gathered my empirical material during an eight weeks long field study in Tirupur, one of the main cities for producing garments in India, situated in the state of Tamil Nadu in southern India. The field study was conducted in January to March 2008.

2.1.2 Interviews

Most of the empirical material about the current working conditions was gathered through interviews. One advantage by using interviews, rather than handing out question forms, is to have a possibility to get unexpected results. Interviews also give a possibility to follow-up questions.[15] All interviews were semi-structured with some issues that I wanted to discuss and some questions I wanted answered, but with room for follow-up questions and for the interviewed to address issues they found important.

My study was not big enough to make a representative selection from the population of workers that I was interested in. Because of that I also used material from local and international NGOs to find out what the workers’ conditions where like. But I also conducted 29 interviews with workers and four with management representatives (usually the owner). The interviews was a way for me to not only find out what the conditions are for the workers but also what both the workers and the management feel needs to be changed and who they believe can make that change. These interviews are not claimed to be statistically representative but rather a way of finding the views and attitudes among the workers and owners.

The interviews with the workers are mainly of a respondent character but also contain some informant elements. I made the selection of workers so that I would interview workers both inside and outside the factories, because interviewing workers only inside the factories could give biased answers as the workers wouldn’t want to loose their jobs. On the other hand, if interviewing only workers outside the factories it would leave out the workers that stay in the factories’ accommodations. Still there is a need to be aware of that the workers might be afraid to say too bad things about the factory where they are working, in fear of loosing their jobs. Here, there is an advantage to not only get information from workers but also NGOs and trade unions. Also I interviewed workers with different job descriptions and skills and also in different kinds of units, to get as great variation in the answers as possible.

The management representatives also came from different kinds of units, of different sizes. But also the owners might have reasons for twisting their answers. They may see me as a potential buyer and thus tell me what they think I would like to hear as a buyer, even though I made clear that I was there as a student. The reason for interviewing workers and owners of different kinds was to reach theoretical satiation.

I’ve also interviewed one trade union leader and one NGO representative about the workers’ conditions, to get a broader view.

One methodological problem regarding interviews with especially workers but also one of the owner is that I needed to use an interpreter, as most workers in the garment industry are uneducated and don’t speak English. I tried to reduce these problems by using interpreters that speak good English and were non-biased.

Also, unfortunately, I didn’t have the chance to interview workers in a fair trade certified factory. This means that the fair trade standards I will use to compare with the non-fair trade factories are not verified if they exist in reality or not. However, these standards can form say something about what fair standards could be, and thus it’s possible to examine if the conditions in the non-fair trade factories are fair.

2.1.3 Working condition parameters

To answer the first question I first have to find out what the conditions in the garment industry are like. To decide what to measure when it comes to workers’ conditions I’ve used requirements by fair trade organisations as well as Indian labour laws and ILO (International Labour Organization)’s standards. The parameters I’ve decided to measure are:

-          Temporary or permanent job

-          Income

-          Working hours

-          Maternity leave and crèches

-          Safety and Sanitation

-          Child labour

-          Bounded labour

-          Discrimination

-          Freedom of association

Using these parameters I have asked what the workers think about the conditions. I have also studied what has been reported by NGOs and trade unions. To some extent I also used observation techniques. These observations were rather informal, rather than following a predefined template. Through literature studies I have then examined what the Indian law says as well as fair trade standards. The fair trade standards are used to examine if the conditions are fair. I have then compared the laws and standards with the current conditions. I also asked the workers if they were satisfied with these conditions.

2.2 Indian Law and Fair Trade Standards

The Indian law have regulations for workers’ conditions. There are also different certifications that tell what is needed for the conditions to be fair for the workers in the garment industry.

Different fair trade organization has their own standards for what is required of the factories for them to be certified as fair trade producers. Fairtrade Labelling Organisations (FLO) is an umbrella organization for 23 member organizations. FLO develops and reviews fair trade standards and also supports fair trade certified producers.[16] FLO has developed Generic Fairtrade Standards for Hired Labour, which will be referred to as FLOs standards.

Another certification is called Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production (WRAP). WRAP is a non-profit organization that certificate and control factories according to their standards. WRAP is an initiative by competitive companies that have come together and standardized their codes and factory inspections so that not so many different inspections by all the buyers, different NGOs etc should be needed. One problem though is that some companies still don’t want to abandon their own company codes because of fear that the common standards should be “watered down”.[17]

The fair trade company I visited in Tirupur is certified by both FLO and WRAP. Other companies are not obliged to follow these standards but it can offer a possible measurement of how fair the non-fair trade certified factories are.

However, of course all factories should follow Indian law. In reality, though, there is evidence that the laws are not always followed.

2.3 What Are the Laws and Fair Trade Standards and Are They Followed? Are the Workers Satisfied?

2.3.1 Temporary or Permanent Jobs

One of the most important issues for workers in Tirupur is that they almost never get permanent employment. According to Indian law workers should be registered according to workers permanency act, if they’ve worked more than 240 days in the same company. Workers also cannot officially be laid off because of lack of work if the factory doesn’t have permission of the government. If a worker has been working in the same place for more than one year, he or she has the right to be noticed one month in advance.[18] WRAP doesn’t require permanent hiring of the workforce. The FLO standards, though, require that all work that is regular should be done by permanently hired workers. Contracts that are not permanent or sub-contracting are only allowed in peak periods, under special circumstances.[19]

In Tirupur, though, long term contracts are rare. This is confirmed by workers, owners, trade union and NGO. The trade union representative I talked to feels that one of the biggest problem for the workers is that the work is temporary, because this means that the workers don’t get regularly payment throughout the year, or sometimes even the month.[20] Some workers believe this volatility is a good thing because they feel free to switch jobs whenever they will get better paid at another factory. This goes especially for tailors and other skilled workers. But some workers feel that it is uncertain because they don’t know if they will find another job, so they’d prefer to have permanent jobs. This goes for example for packing workers, as they usually have to wait for jobs, as they are working in the last step of the production units. One packing worker I talked to said: “I don’t earn enough money to support my family because of the constant lack of regular work”.[21]

The standards set up by FLO certainly are not followed in Tirupur, neither are the laws. There are both workers that are satisfied to not have a permanent job, and those who are not.

2.3.2 Income

When it comes to incomes, the wages don’t seem to be low in relation to existing minimum agreements. The Tamil Nadu Government publishes minimum wages for the garment industry. The numbers for Tirupur varied between Rs 1500 and 1819.80/- in the year 2003, depending on how skilled the workers are.[22] The average monthly incomes among the workers (including overtime) I’ve interviewed vary from 2000-9000/- rupees, but are normally between 2-4000/- rupees. The higher salaries are for those who are in charge of a department. The salaries are thus often higher than the minimum wages. A reason for this is that the minimum wages are calculated on 48 hours a week, but many workers work more hours. According to SAVE (Social Awareness and Voluntary Education) the normal income for workers in the garment industry is between 40-150 rupees per eight hours, depending on experience. The unskilled workers (i.e. helpers) will get between 40-80 rupees per eight hours; the semi skilled (i.e. checking ladies) will get 80-120 and the skilled (i.e. tailors) will get around 150.[23] This corresponds to what workers have told me. Calculated on a monthly wage (26 days, 8 hours a day) it means Rs 1040-3900/-. This is more or less in line with the minimum wages. There are also wages agreed by Tirupur Export Association (TEA), but they don’t seem to be higher than the legal minimum wages.[24] The FLO standards say that the wages has to be higher than the national laws and agreements on minimum wages or the regional average. Payment should be made regularly.[25]  The salaries shall also gradually be increased to reach a ”living wage” level that is above the regional average and legally minimum.[26] There is also a premium paid to all fair trade factories that the workers democratically should decide what to do with.[27] For the WRAP certificate at least the minimum compensation required by law has to be paid. That includes wages, allowances and benefits.[28]

Here, it seems like the conditions required by laws and fair trade standards are quite well obeyed, even if it can be discussed if the wages are a “living wage”. Most workers say they think their salary is acceptable but they would prefer to earn more in order to be able to support their family. Some workers wanted to become contractors in order to earn more money.

                      There are two different types of payment used: shift rate and piece rate. The piece rate system is liked by some workers as it gives them the possibility to work more and then get a higher salary. The problem, though, is that not all workers are able to earn enough to make their living. Piece rates also increases the uncertainty for the workers as it makes it more difficult to know how much the salary will be.

2.3.3 Working Hours

Most workers work between 8-12 hours a day, but overtime is usual, especially in peak period, when they might work up to 24 hours a day. They work six days a week, Sundays are free.

Long working hours is for the workers often not seen as something bad. One worker said: “I want to work on both Sundays and other holidays, as well as overtime, in order to earn more money”. Even if an extra overtime rate normally isn’t paid, except for a refreshment allowance of Rs 20/- that sometimes is given, overtime gives the workers a chance to raise their salaries. Also, workers are willing to work long hours because they don’t know for how long they will have a job. Even with long hours and low wages many workers are happy to have a job at all. Though, overtime is not always voluntary. Some workers told that they preferred to go to their native on Sundays and festival days. But sometimes workers are forced to work overtime if there is a lot of work that needs to be done. Also, these long working days and weeks are not compatible with Indian law. Workers are not allowed to work more than 48 hours a week, nor more than twelve hours a day for men and nine for women. Women also should not be allowed to work after 7 p.m. or before 6 p.m. because they need time for domestic duties. However, the government can give a special permission allowing a woman to work until 10 p.m. and after 5 a.m. Workers shall be given one day off every week.[29] It is also stated in the law that a special overtime rate should be paid. In Tamil Nadu the overtime rate for scheduled employment is double the ordinary rate.[30] None of this is followed in the factories I visited in Tirupur. This is recognized also by the owners.

                      According to WRAPs principles working hours must follow local law. One day a week should be off if work is not required because of urgent business needs.[31] This is more or less followed in Tirupur, as work on Sundays is usually voluntary and only forced when needed because of orders that need to be finished urgently. FLO standards, though, are stricter. Except for demanding 48 hours working weeks and one day off it also demands that overtime should be voluntary and mustn’t exceed 12 hours a week. Also, overtime shouldn’t be regular and has to be compensated at a premium rate. [32] Especially the demands of a premium rate and voluntary overtime are rarely followed in Tirupur.

                      Here, a conflict between the laws and fair trade regulations that requires limited working hours on the on hand, and the workers that wants to work long hours in order to earn more money on the other hand. However, it’s not the long working hours the workers really want but this is their way to increase their salaries.

2.3.4 Maternity Leave and Crèches

The workers normally don’t get paid for maternity leave and there are no crèches available at the factories. The fact that crèches are not available is usually not a big problem for the workers. Even though there are women that would like to use a crèche if it was available, many prefer to solve babysitting in other ways. Many children don’t even live in Tirupur, but in villages far away. Also there is a tradition that the children is taken care of by the family, i.e. the grandmother. As the workers usually are hired temporary it’s also no problem to get time off for taking care of infants, but they will not be given any money.[33]

The Indian law requires that factories with more than 30 women employed have a crèche for children below the age of 6 years. The crèche should be in a sanitary condition, supervised by a woman who is trained to take care of children.[34] Maternity benefit payments should be paid at the rate of the average daily wage.[35] The WRAP principles don’t mention maternity leave or crèches but the FLO standards allow no less than eight weeks of fully paid maternity leave. Also, if the company gives a shorter time of maternity leave than 12 weeks, the time of leave must be increased every year by one week until the 12 weeks is reached.[36]. This requirement is far from fulfilled in the factories in Tirupur. Maternity payment benefits would be a help for many women in Tirupur but crèches are usually not asked for.

2.3.5 Safety and Sanitation

According to Indian law there should be first aid kits, clean and hygienic toilets and drinking water available in the factories. There should be sufficient light, fresh air and dust removal. If the factory has more than 150 workers there should be a rest room and if there are more than 250 workers there should be a canteen in the factory.[37]

The FLO standards requires a workplace that is as safe as possible with warning signs showing risk areas, safety instructions, safety devices for all hazardous machinery, safety equipment and safe storage for chemical spraying. There should be first aid facilities, equipment and training. Also potable water and clean sanitary facilities must be available for the workers. There should be appropriate lightning, heating and ventilation.[38]

Some factories in Tirupur have first aid kits, but it’s notably that a knitting unit with potentially dangerous machines didn’t have a first aid kit. This was excused by the owner by the fact that there was a nearby hospital.[39] Toilets are available but it seems like light and dust removing isn’t always sufficient. The workers didn’t express concerned about safety and sanitation issues.

2.3.6 Child Labour

The number of children working in the garment industry in Tirupur is decreasing, especially in the export industry. I didn’t meet any child labourers or workers that knew of children working in the same factory as them. But it’s estimated that there are still 10000 children working in the garment industry in Tirupur.[40]

                      Child labour is rare in the registered export units in Tirupur. But according to the Factory Officials it’s prevalent in unregistered garment units. The children working are usually between 12 and 14 years old. It can be difficult to tell the age of the children as birth registers do not exist. In major companies child workers are rarely hired except in peak seasons but some smaller companies hire them more regularly. The biggest share of child labour is found in subcontracting shops or in homework situations.[41] 

Indian law bans the employment of children below the age of 14 years in specified occupations and processes, including cloth printing, dyeing and weaving. In other occupations child labour is permitted, but the working hours are limited. Child workers are not allowed to work more than three hours a day and not between 7 p.m. and 8 a.m.[42] The FLO doesn’t allow children under the age of 15 years.[43] WRAP doesn’t allow workers under the age of 14 or under the age that interrupt compulsory schooling, or under the legal minimum age, whichever is greater.[44]

It seems like the law and fair trade standards are not followed on this issue. As I didn’t get the possibility to speak to any child labourer I wasn’t able to get their views.

2.3.7 Bounded Labour

While international garment buyers nowadays usually don’t want child labourers in the factories producing their garments, the producers have found a new vulnerable group to exploit. Young women, usually between 14-18 years old, living in the Southern part of India is picked by the garment factories for a three year contract. After 3 years the girls will be given between Rs 300-400/-, money they need to pay wedding dowries. Wedding dowries are formally forbidden in India but is still common. The girls will get free accommodation and food and Rs 75/- a day. They will normally not be allowed to leave the accommodation. This restricted mobility itself can be seen as a form of bounded labour. The girls will work long hours and will not be given any compensation for overtime. They are also not able to leave the factories as they will then loose the bonus paid at the end of the three years. Another scheme gives the girl a small sum every month and the parents are given a bigger sum every year. For both schemes one problem is that the girls often are fired just before the bigger sum is about to be paid and will thus not be given the money. [45]

                      The young women have usually not worked in factories before and don’t know about their rights. Because of that they are likely to be exploited.[46]

Indian law, however, prohibits all forms of bounded labour. Also forced overtime is seen as a form of bounded labour. To take advantage of someone’s social and economic circumstances is also seen as bounded labour, when it gives the person no other choice.[47] The FLO and WRAP doesn’t allow forced or bounded labour in their factories.[48] Here, there is still a distance between the law and reality. Unfortunately, I couldn’t get in touch with any of the women with these kinds of contracts to get their view.

2.3.8 Discrimination

The law says that the same wage should be paid for the same job for both men and women.[49] The FLO standards tells that no discrimination based on race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction or social origin is allowed in a fair trade factory.[50] According to WRAP principles workers should not be employed, paid, promoted and terminated on basis of personal characteristics but on their work abilities.[51]

To some extent these laws and standards are followed in Tirupur. The salaries in Tirupur are not based on sex, caste, origin or any other significant differences, but on skills. However, some jobs are almost exclusively for men or for women. Women are unusual as knitting machine operators. But almost only women are doing the checking of the clothes. Some workers also told me that only men worked as supervisors and managers in their factories. But in other factories both men and women were supervisors. There seem to be a pattern, though, that women often have the positions with lower salaries.

2.3.9 Freedom of Association

In more than 70% of the garment factories in Tirupur there are no trade unions or employee’s association. Together the trade unions claim to have 30% of the workers as members. That number is by other researchers found to be too high. Workers are often not allowed to form unions inside the factories. Some workers fear to be seen as a union member as it might make them less popular among employers.[52]

Many workers I talked to are not members of any trade union. Some say they are happy with their work, if they would have any problem they might join. Some simply said that they are not interested in joining a union. One worker said that it’s better to talk directly to the owner than going through a trade union.[53] Others believe the trade unions are too political. Also one owner believed that the trade unions are too political. He claimed that the trade unions are creating problems, instead of solving them, in order to win political points.[54] Some workers also told me that trade unions were not allowed in the factory they worked in. One worker that was a member of a trade union said his reason for being a member was that they told that they could increase the salaries.[55] According to Indian law, any worker above 15 years can become a trade union member.[56] According to the FLO standards, both workers and employers should be free to join any organization they choose. Workers should not be discriminated for joining unions. Workers should also be trained about their legal rights and duties.[57] WRAP requires that workers have freedom of association and collective bargaining.[58]

                      Here, the reason for not joining trade unions is not only that the workers fear reprisals, in many cases the workers don’t want to join the unions.

2.4 Concluding Remarks

It’s been shown in this chapter that there are a number of labour laws that are not followed by the garment industry in Tirupur. The fair trade standards are usually stricter and are thus followed to an even less extent. One of the major issues for many workers is that they don’t have permanent employments and that it’s difficult to get a salary high enough to support their families. I will now proceed to see what different civil society actors are doing in order to improve these conditions.

3 What Possibilities and Problems Are There For Civil Society Actors to Improve Workers’ Conditions?

3.1 How to Answer the Question

To answer the second question I need to define what civil society is. I will use a broad definition to include all possible actors, as explained in the next section. I also give a theoretical and empirical background to the possibilities and problems for the civil society actors to influence. Based on the findings in the previous chapter about workers’ condition not being statutory and fair I’ll present how civil society actors work to improve the conditions, and how they overcome the problems. For this I will use the interviews with civil society actors that were conducted during my field study in Tirupur.

3.1.1 Interviews

I interviewed one trade union leader, one NGO representative and one fair trade factory chief manager. I made my selection so that I interviewed the only or the most important organisation/union/company. There is only one NGO currently active in Tirupur so I couldn’t conduct more interviews with NGOs. Unfortunately I didn’t have the possibility to meet more than one trade union representative, but as I met a representative from the biggest trade union I still believe it’s possible to draw conclusions about the problems and possibilities for trade unions. Also, I couldn’t find more than one fair trade certified company in Tirupur. I wanted to interview workers in the fair trade factory I visited but I was not able to get the permission on time. The fact that permission was needed might on the other hand say something itself, about the openness of the factory. Also, it wasn’t possible to find the workers from the fair trade factory outside the factory as they were provided free accommodation by the company.

The interviews I conducted were informant interviews. I found some of the informants by using so called snowball selection, where the informants got me in touch with other informants. The informants have to be criticised according to time, dependence, authenticity and tendency.[59] Time shouldn’t be a big problem as I’m asking about what they are doing right now rather than in the past. Also authenticity isn’t a big issue to discuss as there is nothing to indicate that the persons I interviewed not are the ones they told me. When it comes to dependency I have tried to overcome the potential problem by asking all informants about each other so that I get not only their own story but also others’ views. When it comes to tendency there might be problems with all informants as they all have their own agendas that might affect their answers. The trade unions have a political agenda that might make them want the problems to seem bigger than they are, and so might NGOs. The fair trade factory representative has reasons to make his factory appear better than it is. With this in mind, and by putting the answers from the different actors together, it still can be possible to draw conclusions.

3.2 Civil Society Definition

I need to define what civil society means in this essay because the term is a vague concept as there is no consensus over what it really means. I will use a broad definition to include many parts of society, and then evaluate what good they can do to improve the workers’ conditions. I will argue for an inclusion of NGOs and trade unions in the concept and also discuss how fair trade firms could be included in the concept.

3.2.1 An Inclusive Definition

Gordon White presents a definition that he says is widely used, defining civil society as “an intermediate associational realm between the state and family populated by organizations which are separate from the state, enjoy autonomy in relation to the state and are formed voluntarily by members of society to protect or extend their interests or values”. Gordon White also points out that a wider definition of civil society is more useful in developing societies as it better capture the diverse associational life and gives a more complete picture. Then one can distinguish between different organizations within civil society.^[60]

                      I will include as many actors as possible into my research and then evaluate their ways to change the workers’ conditions in Tirupur. I will thus make a broader definition than the one cited above, so as not to risk that important actors will be excluded. This means that I will study organizations whether they are “formed voluntarily by members of society” or rather forced from the outside.

3.2.2 Trade Unions

There may be a problem to include trade unions in Tirupur in civil society as they are closely linked to political parties and thus could be seen as actors outside civil society and instead parts of the state sphere. For example, for Philippe Schmitter, as presented by Whitehead, independency from public authorities is essential.^[61] But as Neera Chandhoke puts it, it’s impossible for civil society to be autonomous from the state because the state both enables civil society to exist and supports it at the same time, as the state can limit what civil society is allowed to do.^[62] When you look at it that way, there is no such thing as total autonomy from the state. I will thus use an integrative concept where civil society is a part of the political system and there can be no clear division between civil society and the state. There is also a tendency that trade unions with loyalties to different parties reproduce the tension and competition existing between the political parties they are connected to. Even if there are co-operation and common agendas at times the different trade unions tend to compete with each other even though they share the same interests.^[63] This might be a problem in Tirupur with trade unions linked to different political parties.

3.2.3 Private Businesses and Non-profit Organizations

When it comes to the discussion if fair trade firms themselves should be counted as a part of civil society, Annette Jünemann points out that private business should be included in civil society only if they have political and social goals beyond their economic interests. There might be a problem to include such actors because they might be united with the state as they depend on stable political structures.^[64] Because fair trade initiatives have social and even political goals they could, following the logic of Jünemann, be included in civil society. I will therefore include fair trade initiatives in the civil society concept.

3.2.4 My Definition of Civil Society

To be able to evaluate the problems and possibilities for making the garment industry fairer, in this essay civil society is non-profit actors that work to change the society but are not entirely a part of the state or family sphere. This will include NGOs, trade unions and firms that work for political and social change. In this essay I will study only a part of civil society, namely the part that is working in Tirupur to improve workers conditions.

3.3 Possibilities and Problems for these Actors

There are three main ways of protecting workers’ rights: through government regulations, trade union organizing and collective bargaining and codes of conduct and other fair trade initiatives. In addition, several reports has shown that to improve workers’ conditions it’s essential that the workers themselves are aware of there rights. Information campaigns among workers are thus a useful instrument.^[65] Civil society can, directly or indirectly, use all four ways to improve the workers’ conditions. However, there are also a number of problems that makes it more difficult for civil society actors to influence on the conditions.

3.3.1 NGOs

NGOs can influence political decision-making in indirect ways, through information campaigns. One thing that reduces the possibilities to improve the workers’ conditions is that the legal rules that do exist are not obeyed, as seen in chapter two. There are two authorities that are responsible for checking labour standards in the factories to see that the legislation is followed. But these authorities are often under staffed and corrupted, and are thus not able to make sure that the law is obeyed.[66] It means that better laws doesn’t mean better conditions, which gives less possibilities for NGOs to influence, as influencing politicians doesn’t give the wanted result. To solve this, NGOs could control and report when legal rules are not followed in factories.

There are a number of problems for NGOs to influence workers’ conditions that are affiliated to Post-Fordism. Post-Fordism, as discussed in by Ankie Hoogvelt, with a more flexible production structure[67], has lead to greater international competition and that is found to be one reason for the poor working conditions in the garment industry in Tirupur. This post-Fordism makes it more difficult for NGOs to act, as the actors that need to be influenced, usually the buyers, are beyond their reach.

One problem derived from post-Fordism is international competition from especially China, which is about to become the most important exporter in this sector. Also, almost all development countries need to develop and increase their exports in the garment sector in order to develop, according to mainstream development strategies. Therefore, competition is likely to increase.[68]

The producers also have a problem that they don’t get regularly orders. The reason for this is that Tirupur has specialized in garments for the spring and summer seasons. The slack periods between seasons gives a low productivity and low utilization levels of machinery.[69] The irregular orders also makes it difficult to hire permanent workers, and also to make bigger investments, i.e. build accommodation for the workers.

Also, because of the requirements from the importers there is often a high pressure to finish the orders quickly. This leads to long working hours and extensive use of subcontracting, especially in peak periods.[70]

                      The seasonal demand together with tight deadlines and international competition causes a production structure that is dependent on sub-contracting and flexible contracts. This makes work uncertain for the workers. They will often use young women and migrants as the workforce, as these groups have less bargaining power.[71]

Also, in the garment industry in Tirupur there is a strict hierarchy of jobs. Machinists, tailors, cutters, ironmasters and packers are regarded as skilled workers. The skilled workers are assisted by unskilled helpers. There are also semi-skilled workers; checkers, trimmers, hand folders and label putters. Every worker is specialized in his/her own work. Because of this strict hierarchy it’s impossible for workers to take over each others jobs and thus deepens the dependency for factory owners to be able to hire and fire workers on a daily basis, instead of giving the workers permanent jobs.[72]

The CITU trade union general secretary points out that the buyers are not likely to want a real change for the workers in the factories. Because of capitalism the owners’ goal is to earn more and they ignore the social aspects. They will only do something for the workers if it benefits them, i.e. if it’s asked for by the consumers. Also, the payment for the clothes is usually made in US dollar. This causes an uncertainty of how much the producer eventually will get in rupees.[73] Owners I talked to say that they would like to improve the conditions for the workers, but they need more support from the buyers. At the moment the rates paid by the buyers are too low to make improvements.[74]

However, there are some things that NGOs can do to solve these problems related to Post-Fordism. To solve the problems concerning the relation between producers and global garment brands is mainly information campaigns. If these information campaigns target consumers it can lead to that the consumers demand the garment brands to require better conditions for the workers producing the garments. When it comes to the problem with strict hierarchy of jobs NGOs can give education and training to workers, so that they can develop and learn new skills and then more easily is able to switch job types.

3.3.2 Trade Unions

Trade unions in Tirupur have the possibility to influence political decision-making in a direct way, as they are connected to political parties. As for NGOs, though, poor implementation of laws makes the possibility to influence through legislation smaller. Trade unions, however, can help workers that have been treated against the law.

To organize the workers and make strikes and collective bargaining possible is the main aim for trade unions. However, there are several problems for trade union organizing in Tirupur. According to ITUC (International Trade Union Confederation) there are several violations of workers’ rights to freedom of association in India. Even though the law prohibits discrimination against trade union members this widely exists. Either they simply act against the law and fire unions members, knowing that the legal process for workers to get their job back is long and costly. Employers also use threats and beatings or false criminal charges to get rid of unwanted trade union members. The trade unions strongest tool is strikes, but in India holding legal strikes can be so difficult that they are rarely completely fulfilled.[75] Also, for the workers it might be a risk to push to hard for their rights, as they risk to not getting a job during non-peak periods.[76] This makes it difficult for trade unions to improve workers’ conditions.

Another problem for the Trade Unions is that they are not trusted by many workers and especially not by the company owners. This makes their possibilities to make a difference smaller, as the number of members isn’t high and the owners don’t want to cooperate.  

Also there are so many trade unions active in Tirupur that they instead of fighting “the real enemy”, the owners, risk to fight against each other.

3.3.3 The Relation between NGOs and Trade Unions

One thing that might affect the possibilities for NGOs as well as trade unions is their possibilities to cooperate with each other. The relation between NGOs and trade unions can be characterized by both alliance and tension. They share the same interest as they both want to improve the conditions for the workers. On the other hand, some trade unionists believe that only the unions can represent the workers. One major difference between trade unions and NGOs is that while trade union leaders are elected by the members and therefore quite clearly can tell who they represent; it is more difficult for NGOs. NGOs don’t always have members, and if so is the case they are not necessarily those they claim to represent but rather donors.^[77] Also, some trade unionists believe that coalitions with NGOs could cause that labour issues diminishes in favour of other issues. The NGOs defend their presence with that they can reach also non-trade union members, who might be in great need of support. Women workers and informal sector workers are categories that are less likely to join trade unions but likely to need improved working conditions. Basically, the legitimacy of NGOs rest on that their work is of good quality.[78]

3.3.4 Codes of Conduct

When companies in the North voluntarily set social standards required from their suppliers in the South, the standards are called codes of conduct. The codes can be used by informed consumers to force global garment brands to improve the conditions for the workers, by buying only from companies with acceptable codes of conduct.[79]

One major problem with codes of conduct is that they are usually made without input from the workers. It is difficult to claim that the codes will lead to social development when the workers, that are supposed to benefit from the codes, not are involved in the process of developing the codes. This also means that there still are the companies that dictates there own practices. Another problem with the codes is that the audits of factory compliance with codes often are too quick and the factory management knows in advance when they will take place. There are consultants and courses to make it easier for factories to pass social compliance audits. It has been found that the factory management teaches the workers to give certain answers during interviews. The management has also been found to keep double records of working hours and wages. Also, the garment brands often don’t manage to sell in the codes to the factories properly. That results in that the factories sometimes focus on making it look like the codes are followed, rather than make efforts to improve the situation for the workers. In addition, the codes usually don’t direct the structural issues that reinforce poor working conditions. These issues are for example low prices paid by the garment brands and the short lead times given. It might be difficult for the companies to understand the conflicting messages given by the brands. On the one hand they are asked to pay higher wages and invest in worker amenities and on the other hand they are asked to lower their prices.[80]

3.3.5 Fair Trade

A way to involve both workers and labour rights organizations in the process of making and controlling of the codes is the so called “multi-stakeholders initiatives” (MSIs). MSIs usually focus on labour rights and environmental issues in the production units. The MSIs have representation from unions, brands and NGOs on their boards of directors. They also involve local unions and NGOs in their work to improve the workers’ conditions, inspect the factories and teach the workers about their rights. Some examples of MSIs are: the Fair Wear Foundation (FWF), the Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI), the Fair Labour Association (FLA) and the Workers Rights’ Consortium (WRC). Each MSI has defined their own codes of conduct that the member companies have to adopt. They then help its members to improve on following the codes. The MSIs wants to create a long-term change for the garment factory workers through companies, unions, NGOs and factory managers working together to improve the workers’ conditions.[81]

There have been a lot of different definitions of fair trade, but to make it easier to understand the concept, four big fair trade organizations, known as FINE[82], made a definition of fair trade as follows:

“Fair Trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, which seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers – especially in the South.

Fair trade organizations (backed by consumers) are engaged actively in supporting producers, awareness raising and in campaigning for changes in the rules and practice of conventional international trade.”[83]

 

The goals of fair trade are thus to:

-          “To improve the livelihoods and well-being of producers by improving market access, strengthening producer organizations, paying a better price and providing continuity in the trading relationship.

-          To promote development opportunities for disadvantaged producers, especially women and indigenous people, and to protect children from exploitation in the production process.

-          To raise awareness among consumers of the negative effects on producers of international trade so that they exercise their purchasing power positively.

-          To set an example of partnership in trade through dialogue, transparency and respect.

-          To campaign for changes in the rules and practice of conventional international trade.

-          To protect human rights by promoting social justice, sound environmental practices and economic security.”[84]

From this, two major visions with fair trade can be sorted out. The first one is to improve the standard of living for producers in the South and the second is to transform the world economy from free to fair trade. Fair trade can thus be seen as either a part of free trade that can make free trade work like it is supposed to, or a critique and alternative way to free trade. As seen in the two different visions discussed above, the possible impacts of fair trade are to benefit the producers and to influence free trade. The second possible impact is the most controversial and I will leave it behind as it does not affect my essay. When it comes to benefits for the producers it is important to measure if there is a real impact on the workers, because if there isn’t, money spent on fair trade might be better spent on other kinds of development project.^[85]

                      There are many reports both from research groups and NGOs that show positive impact on producers. One important limitation though is that the fair trade producers are rarely compared to non-fair trade producers which make a comparison impossible. Also, fair trade initiatives are often supported by development agencies, which makes it difficult to assess if the improvements comes because of fair trade or other development projects. It also seems like in many reports only positive impacts are discussed and negative are left out.^[86]

                      Another problem is that the higher price for fair trade products are divided among different actors in the production chain, producers only get a small part of it, which makes it more efficient to give the money directly to the producers.^[87] But as the benefits from fair trade are not just monetary it’s not that easy to dismiss the benefits from fair trade.

3.4 Civil Society’s Work to Improve Workers’ Conditions and Overcome the Problems

In this section I will present what civil society in Tirupur does to improve the conditions and to overcome the problems discussed in the last section.

3.4.1 NGOs

SAVE (Social Awareness and Voluntary Education) is the only NGO currently active in Tirupur. Since 1993 they have worked to improve the workers’ conditions in the garment industry. When the organization started the main mission was to abolish child labour. Now they are working in the following thrust areas:

-          Education Programs for child labourers and children

-          Organizing, developing and strengthening of community based organizations.

-          Support services like health care for children and their families, transit home of children, vocational training for child labourers

-          Income generation activities like coir making, mat weaving and garment production.

-          Campaign and advocacy with authorities, seminars and workshops on joyful learning.

-          Monitoring and documentation of rights violations, data bank on social issues and using law and legal resources.

-          Dialogue with trade unionists, writers, artists, teachers.[88]

SAVE has two major concerns, child labour and bounded labour. SAVE mainly uses two of the four ways that civil society can influence on workers’ conditions; to influence government regulations and giving information to the workers about their rights.

I talked to A. Aloysious, the founder of SAVE, and he estimated that since SAVE started their work the number of child labourers have decreased from 25000 to 10000. SAVE have contributed to this by catching child labourers in the factories as well as when arriving to the train station in Tirupur. They have then tried to contact their parents and if they don’t succeed they bring them to the day centres and schools that SAVE run. They also work to raise awareness of child labour. SAVE also campaign to raise awareness about among politicians and garment buyers about poor working conditions. When it comes to Sumangalian Schemes they don’t only try to influence on politicians and buyers but also give information to the people in the villages about how the Schemes are working, to avoid girls to join. There is also a corporation between other NGOs working in the area around Tirupur. Cooperation with trade unions is felt to be more difficult, as trade unions are both politically connected and not well trusted by neither workers nor owners. Still, they share the same interests, and some cooperation has been possible.[89]

SAVE also work to improve other conditions that workers are concerned about. Through information to the workers as well as politicians they try to improve all the other conditions that are not fair according to the findings in chapter two. Through development projects that are not linked to factory workers only, SAVE also support many people that work in the informal garment sector. Through documentation of rights violation SAVE try to make sure that laws and codes of conducts are followed by the companies.[90]

3.4.2 Trade Unions

The main trade union in the garment sector is CITU (Central Indian Trade Union). It’s affiliated to the CPI (M). The say they have about 10.000 members in the garment industry in Tirupur. Other unions represented in the garment industry in Tirupur are: All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) affiliated to the CPI (7000 members), Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) affiliated to the national Congress Party (6000 members), The Labour Progressive Front (LPF) affiliated to the DMK regional party (4500 members), Marumarchi Labour Progressive Front affiliated to the (M) DMK regional party (3100 members), Anna Labour Federation (ATP) affiliated to the AIADMK regional party (2000 members), National Labour Organization, Hind Mazdoor Sabha and some small trade unions.[91]

                      Two ways for trade unions to influence workers’ conditions is by strikes and collective bargaining. I talked to K. Themagavel, general secretary at CITU. He told me that trade unions from different political parties sometimes cooperate to fight for common demands. They have for example organized strikes together that did make some change. Every three years there is a meeting between labour organizations and owners, to make an agreement on raises of wages. He believes that the employers’ organizations often manage to be more well-organized and united than the trade unions. Also, almost all owners are members of an employers’ organization while only one third of the workers’ are members of any trade union.[92] (Other believes that there is as little as 5% that are members of a trade union.[93]) However, the trade unions work also for the non-members.[94]

                      As laws are not followed, trade unions help workers that are not treated according to the laws. They also work through the political party they are affiliated with to improve legislation. When it comes to the possibility to work together with NGOs, Themagavel believe that trade unions are the only organizations that work in the true interests of the workers and thus are the only ones who really can be trusted to support the workers. He claims that NGOs has a different agenda, not only including workers’ rights and that it’s therefore is complicated to cooperate, even though it sometimes has been done.[95] However, tension seems to be larger than alliance between trade unions and NGOs in Tirupur.

                      The problem to not be trusted by workers and owners is acknowledged by the Trade Union. The trade unions try to solve this by giving information about their work. The trade unions also see a problem in that they are associated to a party, because it might make the owners more negative to cooperation. This might lead to that problems between workers and owners takes longer time to solve.[96]

3.4.3 Fair Trade

Premdurai Exports Ltd (Prem) is a company in Tirupur with several certifications for their work to improve the conditions for the workers. It was certified by FLO in 2004-2005 and thus follows the standards set by the organization. They also have a WRAP certification.[97]

Prem Group of companies started its work in 1984, originally supplying the garments to a local brand. In 1987 it started to cooperate with a European brand called Switcher and Prem has now become their only major supplier.[98] Prem follows Switcher’s codes of conduct which includes:

-          Employment is freely chosen

-          There is no discrimination in employment. This means that everyone shall get equal treatment and opportunity regardless of race, sex, colour, religion, political views, nationality, social origin etc.

-          No children below the age of 15 are allowed. Children between 15 and 18 years old shall only perform work that is no likely to harm their health, safety or morals.

-          Freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining

-          Payment of a living wage. The wages shall at least meat legal or industry minimum standards. The wages should always be high enough to meet the basic needs of the workers and their family.

-          No excessive working hours. Working hours shall be in line with national laws and industry standards. Working hours should never be more than 48 hours per week. One day a week should be off. Overtime shall always be voluntary and not more than 12 hours a week. Overtime shall be compensated at a premium rate.

-          Health and safety working conditions. Health and safety risk shall be minimized.

-          Legally-binding employment relationship[99]

                      Prem also run some human development programs. Youngster Education Support (YES) is a program for workers between 16-25 years old. It is run with support from a Swiss NGO called Swiss Contact. All classes are voluntary for the young adults. The goals of the program are to improve the youngsters’ living conditions by giving them a sense of self-confidence and an interest in promoting their skills and knowledge. There is also a trust called Durai Charitable Trust that Prem and Switcher share responsibility for. The trust provides free health, safety and education services to workers and the surrounding public.[100]

                      All workers at Prem are hired permanently. The reason that they, in contrary to most factories in Tirupur, can do that is that they have a buyer that gives them regularly orders. They also have units for most of the steps in the process, like spinning, knitting, dyeing and garment manufacturing. The wages are between Rs 3250/- and Rs 4800/-, depending on talent. All workers are also provided free accommodation. Newcomers to the industry may get one month of training and will during that time be paid Rs 3000/- plus free accommodation and subsidised food. The workers have an eight hour shift. Overtime can be at maximum two hours a day and they will get double payment. Also, Prem are not only providing drinking water, free dispensaries and education programs to the workers but also their families and the nearby public. Prem provides a crèche for the workers. But their experience is that most parents prefer to have their children taken care of by grandparents. A chief manager at Prem believes that the biggest difference between Prem and other companies in Tirupur is that the working conditions are better. They give the workers stability by hiring them permanently. When it comes to the possibilities to influence other companies to improve the workers’ conditions, the manager at Prem believes that other companies might see them as a model and a way to develop.[101]

                      The workers’ conditions in the Prem factory, according to the manager and their fair trade standards, are better than in other factories in Tirupur. Temporary employment, a reasonable salary, shorter working hours, right to maternity leave, availability of crèches, good safety, no child labourers, no bounded labour, no discrimination and freedom of association is told to be the situation. The problem is that it’s been difficult to verify these conditions as I didn’t have a possibility to talk to the workers. And even if I would have got permission in time to visit the factory, the fact that permission is needed means that it’s impossible to make a visit that is not announced in advance. Prem uses unbiased controllers, but as it in Tirupur is impossible to enter the city without the companies knowing that you are there, it’s difficult to know if even these controls are to be trusted.

Also, as Switcher and NGOs also supports development projects, some of the achievements may not be because of fair trade but rather through aid, i.e. education programs and health services. Another problem for measuring the benefits of fair trade is that some of the achievements seem to have been made possible by regular orders, rather than higher payment because of the fair trade certificate. Regularly orders is also something that non-fair trade certified factories said would give them possibility to improve the workers’ conditions. This makes a comparison between fair trade certified and non-fair trade certified factories difficult as it also compares companies with regularly orders and not. The regularly orders then could be, at least one of, the explaining factors to why workers’ conditions are better in a fair trade factory. However, it can’t be excluded that the regularly orders in fact are a consequence of Prem being fair trade certified.

                      One problem with fair trade, though, is that a factory that at the moment isn’t fair trade certified but would like to be, needs some investments to start with to make the improvements for getting a certificate. This might make it difficult for a factory that is interested in improving the workers’ conditions to do so by getting a fair trade certificate. However, if this support is given by the buyer it will give the producer and a buyer a link that can create a cooperation that the producer can benefit from by getting regularly orders. And the regularly order may give the factories an opportunity to improve the conditions for the workers even more.

4 Conclusions

As seen in the empirical evidence, a lot of workers are not satisfied with their current working conditions. Also, most feel that there is little they can do about it. There are a lot of legal rules in India about how the workers’ conditions should be. However, these rules are not always followed by the industry. The standards set by fair trade organizations are followed are followed to an even lesser extent. This has made civil society actors like NGOs and trade unions fight to improve the workers’ conditions and the workers’ knowledge of their rights, and it has also lead to fair trade initiatives.

                      However, it’s been found that there are a number of problems for civil society actors that make it more difficult for them to influence the conditions. Overlaying structures like international competition and demand for quick delivery by the buyers are difficult to address for civil society actors. NGOs have found ways to overcome these problems by using information campaigns about the current situation to influence consumers that in turn can influence the buyers.

                      Trade unions are facing a major problem in that they are distrusted by both owners and workers. This decreases their credibility and possibilities to influence through strikes and collective bargaining. Also, it makes it more difficult for them to claim that they are the best representative for the workers. Trade unions try to overcome the problem by informing workers about what they do, to be able to recruit more members.

                      Fair trade initiatives are very interesting as a solution to many of the problems that NGOs and trade unions face, at least on the paper. The problem is that it’s been impossible to conclude if the reality lives up to what the fair trade standards are. It’s not difficult to understand why the possibility to control the standards is one of the greatest critics against fair trade. The conclusion is that to find out whether fair trade lives up to its standards, more research is needed. It would be particularly interesting to compare fair trade initiatives with non-fair trade factories as well as “ordinary” development projects.