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Medical Shortcuts

The Crash — Sun, 12 Oct 2008 12:56:35 GMT

Hello ,,,

here is some Medical Shortcuts

ACGME
Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education

CSA
Clinical Skills Assessment

ECFMG
Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates

FSMB
Federation of State Medical Boards

GME
Graduate Medical Education

LCME
Liaison Committee on Medical Education

NRMP
National Resident Matching Program

SP
Standardized Patient

Step 2 CS
Step 2 Clinical Skills

TOEFL
Test of English as a Foreign Language

TSE
Test of Spoken English

USMLE
United States Medical Licensing Examination

TERMS USED IN CSA

(the following lists will be available on-site for reference during CSA administrations)

UNITS OF MEASURE

kg
Kilogram

g
Gram

mg
Milligram

lbs
Pounds

oz
Ounces

m
Meter

cm
Centimeter

min
Minute

hr
Hour

C
Centigrade

F
Fahrenheit

VITAL SIGNS

BP
Blood pressure

P
Pulse

R
Respirations

T
Temperature

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS FOR THE PATIENT NOTE

(this is not intended to be a complete list of acceptable abbreviations, but rather is representative of the types of common abbreviations that may be used on the patient note)

yo
Year-old

m or G
Male

f or E
Female

b
Black

w
White

L
Left

R
Right

hx
History

h/o
History of

c/o
Complaining of

NL
Normal limits

WNL
Within normal limits

Ø¦
Without or no

+
Positive

-
Negative

Abd
Abdomen

AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

AP
Anteroposterior

BUN
Blood urea nitrogen

CABG
Coronary artery bypass grafting

CBC
Complete blood count

CCU
Cardiac care unit

cig
Cigarettes

CHF
Congestive heart failure

COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CPR
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CT
Computerized tomography

CVA or TIA
Cerebrovascular accident OR Transient ischemic attack

CVP
Central venous pressure

CXR
Chest x-ray

DM
Diabetes mellitus

DTR
Deep tendon reflexes

ECG
Electrocardiogram

ED
Emergency department

EMT
Emergency medical technician

ENT
Ears, nose, and throat

EOM
Extraocular muscles

ETOH
Alcohol

Ext
Extremities

FH
Family history

GI
Gastrointestinal

GU
Genitourinary

HEENT
Head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat

HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus

HTN
Hypertension

IM
Intramuscularly

IV
Intravenously

JVD
Jugular venous distention

KUB
Kidney, ureter, and bladder

LMP
Last menstrual period

LP
Lumbar puncture

MI
Myocardial infarction

MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging

MVA
Motor vehicle accident

Neuro
Neurologic

NIDDM
Non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

NKA
No known allergies

NKDA
No known drug allergy

NSR
Normal sinus rhythm

PA
Posteroanterior

PERLA
Pupils equal, react to light and accommodation

po
Orally

PT
Prothrombin time

PTT
Partial prothrombin time

RBC
Red blood cells

SH
Social history

U/A
Urinalysis

URI
Upper respiratory tract infection

WBC
White blood cells

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE US

AA - Alcoholics Anonymous; African American
A-a - Alveolat Arterial gradient
AAA - Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
AB - Antibody; also Abortion
ABD - Abdomen
ABG - Arterial Blood Gas
ABI - Ankle Brachial Index
ABPA - Allergic Broncho Pulmonary Aspergillosis
ABX - Antibiotics
AC - Anterior Chamber; also Acromio-Clavicular and Before Meals
ACE-I - Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitor
ACL - Anterior Cruciate Ligament
ACLS - Advanced Cardiac Life Support
ACS - Acute Coronary Syndrome
AD LIB - As Desired
ADA - American Diabetes Association
ADD - Attention Deficit Disorder
ADE - Adverse Drug Effect
ADHD - Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
ADL - Activities of Daily Living
ADR - Adverse Drug Reaction
ADTP - Alcohol and Drug Treatment Program
AED - Automatic External Defibrillator; Anti-Epileptic Drug
AF - Atrial Fibrillation; Afebrile
AFB - Acid Fast Bacterium
AFP - Alpha Fetoprotein
AGN - Antigen
AI - Aortic Insufficiency
AIDS - Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome
AIN - Acute Interstitial Nephritis
AK - Actinic Keratosis
AKA - Above Knee Amputation
ALL - Allergies; also Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
ALS - Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis; also Advanced Life Support
AMA - Against Medical Advice; American Medical Association
AMD - Aging Macular Degeneration
AMI - Acute Myocardial Infarction; Anterior Myocardial Infarction
A-MIBI - Adenosine MIBI
AML - Acute Myelogenous Leukemia
AMS - Altered Mental Status; Acute Mountain Sickness
ANC - Absolute Neutrophil Count
AND - Axillary Node Dissection
ANGIO - Angiography
A&O - Alert And Oriented
AP - Anterior-Posterior
A/P - Assessment and Plan
APC - Atrial Premature Contraction
APD - Afferent Pupillary Defect
APPY - Appendectomy
APS - Adult Protective Services
ARB - Angiotensin Receptor Blocker
ARDS - Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome
ARF - Acute Renal Failure
AS - Aortic Stenosis; also Anklyosing Spondylitis
ASA - Aspirin
ASD - Atrial Septal Defect
ASU - Ambulatory Surgery Unit
ATN - Acute Tubular Necrosis
A/V Nicking - Arteriolar/Venous Nicking
A/V Ratio - Arteriolar/Venous Ratio
AVF- Arterio-Venous Fistula
AVM - Arterial Venous Malformation
AVN - Avascular Necrosis; Atrio-Ventricular
AVNRT - Atrio-Ventricular Nodal Reentrant Tachycardia
AVR - Aortic Valve Replacment
AVSS - Afebrile, Vital Signs Stable

B - Bilateral
B&C - Board and Care
BAE - Barium Enema
BBB - Bundle Branch Block
BCC - Basal Cell Carcinoma
BCG - Bacille Calmette-Guerin
BDR - Background Diabetic Retinopathy
BE - Bacterial Endocarditis; also Barium Enema
BET - Benign Essential Tremor
BIB - Brought In By
BID - Twice a Day
BIPAP - Bi-Level Positive Airway Pressure
BIVAD - Bi-Ventricular Assist Device
BKA - Below Knee Amputation
BL CX - Blood Culture
BM - Bone Marrow; also Bowel Movement
BMI - Body Mass Index
BMT - Bone Marrow Transplant
BP - Blood Pressure
BPD - Borderline Personality Disorder; also Bi-Polar Disorder and Broncho-Pulmonary Dysplasia
BPV - Benign Positional Vertigo
BR - Bed Rest
BRAO - Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion
BRB - Bright Red Blood
BRBPR - Bright Red Blood Per Rectum
BRP - Bathroom Priveleges
BRVO - Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
BS - Bowel Sounds; also Breath Sounds and Blood Sugar
BSA - Body Surface Area
BUN - Blood Urea Nitrogen
BX - Biopsy

C - With
CABG - Coronary Artery By-Pass Graft
CAD - Coronary Artery Disease
CAP - Prostate Cancer; Community Acquired Pneumonia
CARDS - Cardiology
CAT - Cataract
CATH - Catheterization
CB - Cerebellar
C/B - Complicated By
CBC - Complete Blood Count
CBD - Common Bile Duct; Closed Bag Drainage
CBI - Continuous Bladder Irrigation
CC - Chief Complaint
CCB - Calcium Channel Blocker
CCC - Central Corneal Clouding
CCK - Cholycystectomy
CCE - Clubbing, Cyanosis, Edema
C/D - Cup to Disk ratio
CDI - Clean Dry Intact
C DIF - Clostridium Difficile
CEA - Carcinoembryonic Antigen
Chemo - Chemotherapy
CHI - Closed Head Injury
CHF - Congestive Heart Failure
Choly - Cholycystectomy
CI - Cardiac Index
CIC - Clean Intermitent Catheterization
CIDP - Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy
CK - Creatine Kinase
CL - Chloride
CLL - Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
CM - Cardiomegaly
CML - Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia
CMP - Cardiomyopathy
CMR - Chief Medical Resident
CMT - Cervical Motion Tenderness; Charcot Marie Tooth
CMV - Cyto-Megalo Virus
CN - Cranial Nerves
CNIS - Carotid Non-Invasive Study
CNS - Central Nervous System
CO - Cardiac Output
C/O - Complains Of
COPD - Chronic Obtructive Pulmonary Disease
COX 2 - Cyclooxygenase 2
CPAP - Continuous Positive Airway Pressure
CPP - Cerebral Perfusion Pressurs
CPPD - Calcium Pyrophosphate Disease
CPR - Cardiopulmonary Recusitation
CPS - Child Protective Services
CPU - Chest Pain Unit
CRAO - Central Retinal Artery Occlucsion
CRFs - Cardiac Risk Factors
CRI - Chronic Renal Insufficiency
CRP - C Reactive Protein
CRVO - Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
CSF - Cerebral Spinal Fluid
CT - Cat Scan; also Chest Tube and Cardio-Thoracic
CTA - Clear To Auscultation
CVA - Cerebral Vascular Accident
CVL - Central Venous Line
CVP - Central Venous Pressure
C/W - Consistent With; Compared With
CX - Culture
CXR - Chest X-Ray
C/W - Consistent With

D - Diarrhea; also Disk
D5W - Dextrose 5% in Water
DB- Direct Bilirubin
DBP - Diastolic Blood Pressure
DC - Discharge; Discontinue; Doctor of Chiropractics
D&C - Dilatation and Curretage
DCIS - Ductal Carcinoma In Situ
DDX - Differential Diagnosis
DF - Dorsiflexion
DFA - Direct Flourescent Antibody
DFE - Dilated Fundus Examination
DI - Diabetes Insipidus; Detrusor Instability
DIC - Disseminated Intravascular Coagulopathy
DIF - Differential
DIP - Distal Inter-Phalangeal
DJD - Degenerative Joint Disease
DKA - Diabetic Ketoacidosis
DM - Diabetes Mellitus
DNI - Do Not Intubate
DNR - Do Not Recusitate
DO - Doctor of Osteopahty
D/O - Disorder
DOT - Directly Observed Therapy
DOU - Direct Observation Unit
DP - Dorsalis Pedis
DPL - Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage
DPOA - Durable Power Of Attorney
DR - Diabetic Retinopathy
DRE - Digital Rectal Exam
D/T - Due To
DTs - Delirium Tremens
DTR - Deep Tendon Reflex
DVT - Deep Venous Thrombosis
DX - Diagnosis
DU - Duodenal Ulcer

EBL - Estimated Blood Loss
EBM - Evidence Based Medicine
EBRT - External Beam Radiation Therapy
EBV - Epstein Barr Virus
ECG - Electrocardiogram (also known as EKG)
ECHO - Echocardiography
ECMO - Extra-Corporeal Membrane Oxygenation
ECT - Electro-Convulsive Therapy
ED - Errectile Dysfunction
EEG - Electroencephalogram
EF - Ejection Fraction (in reference to ventricular function)
EGD - Esophago-Gastro Duodenoscopy
EIC - Epidermal Inclusion Cyst
EJ - External Jugular
EKG - Electrocardiogram (also known as ECG)
EM - Electron Microscopy
EMG - Electromyelogram
EMS - Emergency Medical System
EMT - Emergency Medical Technician
E/O - Evidence Of
EOMI - Extra Occular Muscles Intact
Eos - Eosinophils
EPO - Erythropoeitin
EPS - Electro-Physiologic Study (Cardiac)
ER - Emergency Room
ERCP - Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio-Pancreotography
ESI - Epidural Steroid Injection
ESLD - End Stage Liver Disease
ESR - Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate
ESRD - End Stage Renal Disease
ESWL - Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy
ETOH - Alcohol
ETT - Exercise Tolerance Test; also Endotracheal Tube
EWCL - Extended Wear Contact Lens
EX LAP - Exploratory Laparotomy
EX FIX - External Fixation
EXT - Extremities

FB - Foreign Body
F/B - Followed By
FBS - Fasting Blood Sugar
FE - Iron
FEM - Femoral
FENA - Fractional Excretion of Sodium
FEV1 - FOrced Expiratory Volume 1 Second
FFP - Fresh Frozen Plasma
Flex Sig - Flexible Sigmoidoscopy
FLU - Influenza
FMG - Foreign Medical Graduate
F&N - Febrile and Neutropenic
FNA - Fine Needle Aspiration
FOOSH - Fall On Outstretched Hand
FOS- Full of Stool(!!); Force Of Stream
FP - Family Practitioner
FRC - Functional Residual Capacity
FSG - Finger Stick Glucose
FSH - Follicle Stimulating Hormone
FTT - Failure To Thrive
F/U - Follow-Up
FUO - Fever of Unknown Origin
FX - Fracture

G - Guiac (followed by + or -)
GA - General Anesthesia
GAD - Generalized Anxiety Disorder
GAS - Group A Strep; Guaiac All Stools
GB - Gall Bladder; also Guillain Barre
GBM - Glioblastoma Multiforme
GBS- Group B Strep or Guillian Barre Syndrome
GC - Gonorrhea
GCS - Glascow Coma Scale
GCSF - Granulocyte Colony Stimulating Factor
GERD - Gastroesophageal Reflux
GERI- Geriatrics
GI - Gastrointestinal
GIB - Gastrointestinal Bleeding
GLC - Glaucoma
GMR - Gallups, Murmurs, Rubs
GN - Glomerulonephritis
GNR - Gram Negative Rod
GOO - Gastric Outlet Obstruction
GP - General Practitioner
G#P# - Gravida # Para #
GP 2b/3a - Glycoprotein 2b/3a Inhibitor
GPC - Gram Positive Coccus
GS - Gram Stain
GSW - Gun Shot Wound
GTT - Glucose Tolerance Test
G-Tube - Gastric Feeding Tube
GU - Genito-Urinary; also Gastric Ulcer
GVHD - Graft Versus Host Disease

H FLU - Haemophilus Influenza
HA - Headache
HAART - Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy
HACE - High Altitude Cerebral Edema
HAPE - High Altitude Pulmonary Edema
H2 - Histamine 2
HCC - Hepatocellular Carcinoma
HCG - Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
HCL - Hard Contact Lens
HCM - Health Care Maintenance
HCT - Hematocrit
HCV - Hepatitis C Virus
HD - Hemodialysis
HDL - High Density Lipoprotein
HEENT - Head, Ears, Eyes, Nose, Throat
HELLP - Hemolysis Elevated Liver tests Low Platelets
HEME/ONC - Hematology/Oncology
HGB - Hemoglobin
HH - Hiatal Hernia
H&H - Hemoglobin and Hematocrit
HI - Homicidal Ideation
HIB - Haemophilus Influenza B vaccine
HIT - Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia
HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HL - Heparin Lock
HOB - Head Of Bed
HOCM - Hypertrophic Obstructive Cardiomyopathy
HOH - Hard Of Hearing
HONK - Hyperosmolar Non-Ketotic State
HPI - History of Present Illness
HPV - Human Papilloma Virus
HR - Heart Rate
HRT - Hormone Replacement Therapy
HS - At Bedtime
HSM - Holo-Systolic Murmur; also Hepato-Splenomegaly
HSP - Henoch Shonlein Purpura
HSV - Herpes Simplex Virus
HTN - Hypertension
HU - Holding Unit
HUS - Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
HX - History

I+ - With Ionic Contrast (in reference to a CAT Scan)
I- - Without Ionic Contrast (in reference to a CAT Scan)
IA - Intra-Articular
IABP - Intra-Aortic Baloon Pump
IBD - Inflammatory Bowel Disease
IBS - Irritable Bowel Syndrome
IBW - Ideal Body Weight
ICD - Implantable Cardiac Defibrillator
ICH - Intra-Cranial Hemorrhage
ICP - Intra-Cranial Pressure
ID - Infectious Diseases
I&D - Incise and Drain
IDDM - Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
IFN - Interferon
IH - Inguinal Hernia (usually preceded by L or R)
IJ - Internal Jugular
IL- Interleukin; Indirect Layngoscopy
ILD - Interstitial Lung Disease
IM - Intramuscular also Intramedullary
IMI - Inferior Myocardial Infarction
IMP - Impression
INR - International Normalized Ratio
I&O - Ins and Outs
IOL - Intra-Occular Lens
IOP - Intra-Occular Pressure
IP - Inter-Phalangeal
IPF - Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
IR - Interventional Radiology; Internal Rotation
IRB - Indications Risks Benefits; Institutional Review Board
IT - Intrathecal; Information Technology
ITP - Idiopathic Thrombocytopenia
IUD - Intrauterine Device
IUP - Intrauterine Pregnancy
IV - Intravenous
IVC - Inferior Vena Cava
IVDU - Intravenous Drug Use
IVF - Intravenous Fluids; also In Vitro Fertilization
IVP - Intravenous Pyelogram

JP - Jackson Pratt
J-Tube - Jejunal Feeding Tube
JVD - Jugular Venous Distention
JVP - Jugular Venous Pressure

K - Potassium
KCAL - Kilocalories
KUB - Kidneys Ureters and Bladder
KVO - Keep Vein Open

L - Left
LA - Left Atrium
LAC - Laceration
LAD - Left Anterior Descending (coronary artery); Left Axis Deviation
LAP - Laproscopic; also Laparotomy
LAR - Low Anterior Resection
LBBB - Left Bundle Branch Block
LBO - Large Bowel Obstruction
LBP - Low Back Pain
LCL - Lateral Collateral Ligament
LCX - Left Circumflex (coronary artery)
L&D - Labor and Delivery
LDH - Lactate Dehydrogenase
LDL - Low Density Lipoprotein
LE - Lower Extremity (usually preceded by R or L); Leukocyte Esterase
LENIS - Lower Extremity Non-Invasive Study
LFT - Liver Function Test
LH - Leutinizing Hormone; Left Handed; Light Headed
LHC - Left Heart Cath
LHRH - Leutinizing Hormone Releasing Hormone
LIMA - Left Internal Mammary Artery
LLE- Left Lower Extremity
LLL - Left Lower Lobe; Left Lower Lid
LLQ - Left Lower Quadrant
LM - Left Main Coronary Artery
LMA - Laryngeal Mask Airway
LMD - Local Medical Doctor
LMN - Lower Motor Neuron
LMP - Last Menstrual Period
LN - Lymph Node also Liquid Nitrogen
LND - Lymph Node Dissection
LOA - Lysis Of Adhesions
LOC - Loss Of Consciousness
LP - Lumbar Puncture
LPN - Licensed Practical Nurse
LR - Lactated Ringers
LS - Lumbro-Sacral
LT - Light Touch
LUE - Left Upper Extremity
LUL - Left Upper Lobe; also Left Upper Lid
LUTS - Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms
LUQ - Left Upper Quadrant
LV FXN - Left Ventricular Function
LVAD - Left Ventricular Assist Device
LVEDP - Left Ventricular End Diastolic Pressure
LVH - Left Ventricular Hypertrophy
LVN - Licensed Vocational Nurse
LMWH - Low Molecular Weight Heparin
LYTES- Electrolytes

MAC - Monitored Anesthesia Care
MCL - Medial Collateral Ligament
MCP - Metacarpal-Phalangeal
MCV - Mean Corpuscular Volume
MDRTB - Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis
MEDS - Medicines
MFM - Maternal-Fetal Medicine
MI - Myocardial Infarction
MICU - Medical Intensive Care Unit
MIDCAB - Minimally Invasive Direct Coronary Artery Bypass
MM - Multiple Myeloma
M&M - Morbidity and Mortality
MMP - Multiple Medical Problems
MMR - Measels, Mumps and Rubella vaccine
MOM - Milk Of Magnesia
MR - Mitral Regurgitation
MRCP - Magnetic Resonance Cholangio Pancreatography
MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRSA - Methicillin Resistant Staph Aureus
MS - Mental Status; also Mitral Stenosis, Multiple Sclerosis and Morphine Sulfate
MSSA - Methicillin Sensitive Staph Aureus
MTP - Metatarsal-Phalangeal
MVP - Mitral Valve Prolapse
MVR - Mitral Valve Replacement

N - Nausea
NA - Not Available; also Sodium
NAD - No Apparent Distress; No Acute Disease
NABS - Normal Active Bowel Sounds
NCAT - Normocephalic Atraumatic
NCS - Nerve Conduction Study
NEB - Nebulizer
NGT - Naso-Gastric Tube
NGU - Non-Gonococcal Urethritis
NH - Nursing Home
NHL - Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma
NICU - Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
NIDDM - Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
NIF - Negative Inspiratory Force
NKDA - No Known Drug Allergies
NMS - Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
NOS - Not Otherwise Specified
NP - Nurse Practitioner
NPO - Nothing By Mouth
NS - Normal Saline
NSBGP - Non-Specific Bowel Gas Pattern
NSCLCA - Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
NSR - Normal Sinus Rhythm
NT - Non-Tender
NTD - Nothing To Do
NUCS - Nuclear Medicine
NYHA - New York Heart Association

OA - Osteoarthritis
OB - Occult Blood (followed by '+' or '-')
OCD - Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
OCP - Oral Contraceptive Pill
OD - Right Eye
OE - Otitis Externa
OLT - Orthotopic Liver Transplant
OM - Otitis Media
ON - Optic Nerve; Over Night
OOB - Out Of Bed
OP - Opening Pressure
O/P - Oropharynx
O&P - Ovum and Parasistes
ORIF - Open Reduction with Internal Fixation
ORL - Oto-Rhino Laryngology
OS - Left Eye
OSA - Obstructive Sleep Apnea
OT - Occupational Therapy
OTC - Over The Counter
OTD - Out The Door
OU - Both Eyes
O/W - Otherwise

P - Pulse
P - Pending
P - After
PA - Posterior-Anterior; also Physician's Assistant
PACU - Post Anesthesia Care Unit
PAD - Peripheral Arterial Disease
PALS - Pediatric Advanced Life Support
PBC - Primary Billiary Cirrhosis
PC - After Meals
PCA - Patient Controled Analgesia
PCI - Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
PCKD - Polycystic Kidney Disease
PCL - Posterior Cruciate Ligament
PCM - Pacemaker
PCOD - Poly-Cystic Ovarian Disease
PCP - Primary Care Physician; also Pneumocystis Pneumonia
PCR - Polymerase Chain Reaction
PCWP - Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure
PD - Parkinson's Disease; also Personality Disorder and Peritoneal Dialysis
PDA - Patent Ductus Arteriosus
PE - Physical Exam; also Pulmonary Embolism
PEG - Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy
PERRL - Pupils Equal, Round, Reactive to Light
PET - Positron Emission Tomography
PF - Peak Flow; also Plantar Flexion
PFO - Patent Foramen Ovale
PFTs - Pulmonary Function Tests
PH - Pin Hole
PICC - Peripherally Inserted Central Catheter
PICU - Pediatric Intensive Care Unit
PID - Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
PIH - Pregnancy Induced Hypertension
PIP - Proximal Inter-Phalangeal
PLT - Platelets
PMD - Primary Medical Doctor
PMH - Past Medical History
PMI - Point of Maximum Impulse
PMN - Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes
PMRS - Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Service
PN - Progress Note
PNA - Pneumonia
PNBX - Prostate Needle Biopsy
PND - Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea also Post Nasal Drip
PNS - Peripheral Nervous System
PO - By Mouth
POP - Popliteal
PP - Pin
PPD - Purified Protein Derivative
PPH - Primary Pulmonary Hypertension
PPI - Proton Pump Inhibitor
PPN - Peripheral Parenteral Nutrition
PPTL- Post Partum Tubal Ligation
PR - Per Rectum
PRBCs - Packed Red Blood Cells
PRN - Refers to treatments which patient can receive on an "as needed" basis
PSA - Prostate Specific Antigen
PSC - Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis
PSH - Past Surgical History
PT - Physical Therapy; Posterior Tibial; Prothrombin Time; Patient
PTA - Prior To Admission; Peritonsilar Abscess
PTCA - Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty
P-Thal - Persantine Thallium
PTSD - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
PTT - Partial Thromboplastin Time
PTX - Pneumothorax
PUD - Peptic Ulcer Disease
PV - Polycythemia Vera; Portal Vein
P VAX - Pneumococcal Vaccination
PVC - Premature Ventricular Contraction
PVD - Peripheral Vascular Disease; Posterior Vitreous Detachment
PVR - Post Void Residual

Q - Every (refers to a time interval...eg. if followed by 6, means "Every 6 Hours"; if followed by AM, D, W, or M =s "Every Morning Day, Week, or Month" respectively)
QHS - Every Night
QID - Four times per day
QNS - Quantity Not Sufficient
QOD - Every Other Day

R - Right
RA - Right Atrium
RAD - Right Axis Deviation; also Reactive Airways Disease
R/B - Referred By; Relieved By
RBBB - Right Bundle Branch Block
RBC - Red Blood Cell
RCA - Right Coronary Artery
RCC - Renal Cell Cancer
RCT - Randomized Controled Trial; Rotator Cuff Tear
RD - Retinal Detachment; also Registered Dietician
RDI - Respiratory Disturbance Index
RF - Rheumatoid Factor; also Risk Factor
RFA - Radio Frequency Ablation; Right Femoral Artery
RHC - RIght Heart Cath
RHD - Rheumatic Heart Disease
Rheum - Rheumatology
R/I - Rule In
RIG - Rabies Immunoglobulin
RIMA - Right Internal Mammary Artery
RLE - Right Lower Extremity
RLL - Right Lower Lobe; also Right Lower Lid
RLQ - Right Lower Quadrant
RML - Right Middle Lobe
RNEF - Radionuclide Ejection Fraction
R/O - Rule Out
ROM - Range Of Motion
ROMI - Rule Out Myocardial Infarction
ROS - Review Of Systems
RPGN - Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis
RPLND - Retroperitoneal Lymph Node Dissection
RPR - Rapid Plasma Reagin
RR - Respiratory Rate
RRP - Radical Retropubic Prostatectomy
RRR - Regular Rate and Rhythm
RSD - Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy
RSV - Respiratory Syncytial Virus
RT - Respiratory Therapy
RTC - Return To Clinic
RUE - Right Upper Extremity
RUG - Retrograde Urethrogram
RUL - Right Upper Lobe; Right Upper Lid
RUQ - Right Upper Quadrant
RV - Right Ventricle; Residual Volume
RVAD - Right Ventricular Assist Device
RVG - Right Ventriculogram
RVR- Rapid Ventricular Response
RX - Treatment

_
S - Without
2/2 - Secondary To
SA - Sino-Atrial; Staph Aureus
SAAG - Serum Ascites Albumin Gradient
SAB - Spontaneous Abortion
SAH - Sub-Arachnoid Hemorrhage
SBE - Subacute Bacterial Endocarditis
SBO - Small Bowel Obstruction
SBP - Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis; Systolic Blood Pressure
SC - Subcutaneous
SCCA - Squamous Cell Cancer
SCL - Soft Contact Lens
SCLCA - Small Cell Lung Cancer
SEM - Systolic Ejection Murmur (with reference to cardiac exam)
SFA - Superficial Femoral Artery
SFV - Superficial Femoral Vein
SI - Suicidal Ideation
SIADH - Syndrome of Inappropriate Anti-Diuretic Hormone secretion
SICU - Surgical Intensive Care Unit
SIDS - Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
SIRS - Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome
SK - Seborrheic Keratosis; also Streptokinase
SL - Sublingual
SLE - Systemic Lupus Erythematosus; also Slit Lamp Exam
SLR - Straight Leg Raise
SNF - Skilled Nursing Facility
S/P - Status Post; also Supra Pubic
SPEP - Serum Protein Electro-Pheresis
SPF - Sun Protection Formula
SQ - Subcutaneous
SSI - Sliding Scale Insulin Also called ISS
SSRI - Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor
STAT - Immediately
STD - Sexually Transmitted Disease
STS - Soft Tissue Swelling
STX - Stricture
SVC - Superior Vena Cava
SVG - Saphenous Vein Graft
SW - Social Work; Stab Wound
SX - Symptoms
SZR - Seizure

T - Temperature
T&A - Tonsillectomy and Adenoidectomy
TAA - Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm
TAB - Threatened Abortion; also Therapeutic Abortion
TAH - Total Abdominal Hysterectomy
TB - Tuberculosis; Total Bilirubin
T&C - Type and Cross
TCA - Tricyclic Antidepressant
TC - Current Temperature
TCC - Transitional Cell Cancer
TD - Tetanus and Diptheria Vaccination; Tardive Dyskinesia
TDWBAT - Touch Down Weight Bearing As Tolerated
TEE Trans-Esophageal Echocardiogram
TFs - Tube Feeds
TG - Triglycerides
THA - Total Hip Arthroplasty
THR - Total Hip Replacement
TIA - Transient Ischemic Attack
TIBC - Total Iron Binding Capacity
TID - Three times per day
TIPS - Transvenous Intrahepatic Porto-Systemic Shunt
TKA - Total Knee Arthroplasty
TKR - Total Knee Replacement
TLC - Triple Lumen Catheter; Total Lung Capacity
TM - Tympanic Membrane; Maximum Temperature
TMJ - Temporo-Mandibular Joint
TMN - Tumor Metastases Nodes (universal tumor staging system)
TNF - Tumor Necrosis Factor
TOA - Tubo-Ovarian Abscess
TOX - Toxicology
TOXO - Toxoplasmosis
TP - Total Protein
TPA - Tissue Plasminogen Activator
TPN - Total Parenteral Nutrition
TR - Tricuspid Regurgitation
TRUS - Transrectal Ultrasound
T&S - Type and Screen
TSH - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
TTE - Trans-Thoracic Echocardiogram
TTP - Tender To Palpation; Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
TURBT - Transurethral Resection Bladder Tumor
TURP - Transurethral Prostatectomy
TV - Tidal Volume
TVC - True Vocal Cord
TX - Transfusion; Treatment

UA - Urine Analysis; also Uric Acid
UC - Ulcerative Colitis
UCC - Urgent Care Center
UCX - Urine Culture
UDS - Urodynamic Study, Urine Drug Screen
UE - Upper Extremity (usually preceded by R or L)
UF - Ultra Filtration, University of Florida
UFH - Unfractionated Heparin
UMBO - Umbillical
UMN - Upper Motor Neuron
UNSA - Unstable Angina
UO - Urine Output
UPEP - Urine Protein Electro-Pheresis
UPPP - Uvulopalatopharyngeoplasty
URI - Upper Respiratory tract Infection
US - Ultrasound
UTD - Up To Date
UTI - Urinary Tract Infection
UV - Ultraviolet

V - Vomiting
VA - Visual Acuity
VATS - Video Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery
VAX - Vaccine
VBAC - Vaginal Birth After Cesearean Section
VBG - Venous Blood Gas
VC - Vital Capacity; Vocal Cord
VCUG - Voiding Cysto-Urethrogram
VF - Ventricular Fibrillation
VIP - Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide
VP - Ventriculo-Peritoneal
V&P - Vagotomy and Pyloroplasty
VS - Vital Signs
VSD - Ventricular Septal Defect
VSS - Vital Signs Stable
VT - Ventricular Tachycardia
VWF - Von Willebrand Factor

WBAT - Weight Bearing As Tolerated
WBC - White Blood Cells
WDWN - Well Developed, Well Nourished
WNL - Within Normal Limits
W/O - Without
W/U - Work-Up

X - Except
XLR - Crossed Leg Raise
XRT - Radiation Therapy

ZE - Zollinger Ellison

check introduction of personal statement

Je_nie_dieu — Sun, 05 Oct 2008 18:12:25 GMT

Hello,

I know how the very beginning is important and feel that I don't have the right mastery for being concise and sounding natural. Please help me out!

We should love the world we live in, its constant flux and infinite variety. It serves as an inexhaustible source of strength in overcoming any obstacle. In retrospect, no one ever answered my questions. Filled with curiosity I became a precocious reader able to concentrate and deliberate upon a matter. Finally, the mysteries were being unraveled. This instilled in me self-reliance as well as the character of a winner. Taking such attitude as a twelfth-grader I have achieved desired academic results in Lithuania. Therefore I am applying to best European universities.

What do you think in general, what impression it gives? I hope not negative.

Re: so that and such that?

Anonymous — Fri, 19 Sep 2008 08:22:58 GMT

so that

From dictionary.com

In order that, as in I stopped so that you could catch up.
With the result or consequence that, as in Mail the package now so that it will arrive on time.
so ... that. In such a way or to such an extent that, as in The line was so long that I could scarcely find the end of it.

All three usages date from a.d. 1000 or earlier, and the first two are sometimes put simply as so, as in I stopped so you could catch up, or Mail it now so it will arrive on time.
Source: The American Heritageï½® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer.
Copyright ï½© 1997 by The Christine Ammer 1992 Trust. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company

such that

From mathworld.wolfram.comA condition used in the definition of a mathematical object. For example, the rationals can be defined as "the set of all m/n such that n is nonzero and m and n are integers ." From dictionary.com

adj : of a degree or quality specified (by the `that' clause); their anxiety was such that they could not sleep

Examples

Take x to be a real number so that x² is non-negative. [Correct]
Take x to be a real number so that x²+1 is greater than 4. [Incorrect]
Take x to be a real number such that x²+1 is greater than 4. [Correct]
The subset H of the Lie group G is a discrete subgroup so that G/H is compact. [Incorrect --- not all discrete subgroups of Lie groups have compact quotient; this is from the Annals of Math., 107, p313.]

Briefly, if omitting the "that" from "so that" renders the sentence nonsense, then you should probably have used "such that".
You won't find "so that" among lists of commonly misused phrases because only mathematicians commonly misuse it. Probably the error arose from the influence of German, where the two are not distinguished.

Studying abroad benefits and drawbacks_ please check it

flash2008 — Mon, 21 Jul 2008 14:06:02 GMT

Â Studying abroad benefits and drawbacks

These days, education is one of the main factors that decide anindividual future; According to that, governments invest more resources toimprove their education systems to be successful and efficient. Subsequently, ina recent decades education systems have improved around the world .However,some countries have reached a advanced standards in education and some stillwork on it. Therefore, students from over the world travel abroad to study .Forexample, Qatari students go to the UK and the USA to study and get the most ofeducation there. Conversely, there are some people who claim that there aresome drawbacks such as homesickness and cost of living. This essay will discussstudying abroad by looking to drawbacks then the advantages.

The drawbacks related to studying abroad can be categorizedto educational problems, social problems and financial problems. Firstly, theeducational problems that could face student while studying abroad is thedifferent between the two countries in terms of educational system such ascourse work, research .moreover, teaching methods could be an obstacle in the earlyyears. To elaborate this idea, some students are familiar with some method ofteaching such as teachers give students all materials that are needed for thecourse, but in the UK, for instance, the focus is on individual work. Secondly,social problems face most students in the first years, including homesickness,which is a desire to return home. Also, breaking lawsdue to unfamiliarity with local law and differences in culture, which is likelyto happen for new students. Moreover, choosing friends is a difficulty for somestudents, besides, type of food. For example, Asian students cannot find sameingredients that are used in Asian cuisine. Due to that, many students feeluncomfortable with food. Thirdly, the cost of living in foreign country mightbe expensive. For instance prices of accommodation, university fees andtransportation could be very costly. So that could put more stress on students.

On the other hand, benefits of studying abroadcould be divided into different categories.Â The first one comes to mind is learning new culture. In fact, learningnew culture include many different things such as learning a language, customs,traditions and history. Besides, interacting with new people leads to learningabout their ideas. So, studying abroad not just about learning knowledge butshould be also learning a new way of thinking. Besides, learning different culture,the main purpose of studying abroad is having access to advanced educationsystem. Some countries have an advanced education system for example the UK inEurope, and in North America, Canada and the USA. These countries receive themajority of students from around the world every year because of the variety ofmajors offered and up to date materials. For example, many discoveries occur inthe USA that means there is a very superior education system in universities andin general schools. The last point to be discussed in term of advantages isindividual satisfaction which is a significant these days. Actually, studyingabroad provides people with independence and self satisfaction. Moreover, itprovides the person with open-minded and provides enriching experience and uponcompletion, it leads to a good job.

In conclusion, as everything in life there aretwo sides one is positive and one is negative, but here in this topic thepositive points for studying abroad may be more. In the authorâs opinionstudying abroad is very rewarding experience, and it leads to self satisfactionand the person should make the most of it.

Character Reference Letter to the court

makubexho — Tue, 01 Jul 2008 07:56:26 GMT

Flat *** / x YYYY Rd

Deeky (<--fictitious name)

July 10, 2008

The Presiding Magistrate:

Re: Character Reference â Judy (<--ficticous name)

My name is Deeky and I am an overseas student from LL and currently, full time doing my master of accounting at *** University. The purpose of this is to provide a character reference for Ms. Judy whom I have known as a friend, university fellow and workmate for a period of 3 years.

I first met Judy in a fast food franchised retail shop (kkk), when we were both part time employees while Judy had been in the shop longer than I was. It was shortly we became friends and noticed we were school mates at the same university.

As a student, Judy was a studious student and enthusiastic in involving group discussions of her studies. Although we were not in the same faculty, we often gathered with some of other students as a study group and did our study in university library until late. In fact, she was quite popular with her fellow students. Judy studied hard and accomplished her degree of bachelor of commerce in professional accounting.

As a workmate, Judy was a great choice. I have worked with her for more than 14 months coincidently in two different companies. The Judy I knew was a responsible, hard-working and caring employee to her jobs. Judy, a girl of full of smile, often received compliments of her customer service from customers she had serviced. Due to her hard-working and excellent working performance, she was once entrusted and appointed by our shop manager to be the shop supervisor. Patience, diligence and devotion were the things I saw from Judy when she taught me through about how the workplace operated. Not to mention, she was also popular among her workmates.

As a friend, Judy is a standout. She is a passionate, honest, smart, considerate and supportive individual who always generously lend out a hand to friends in difficulty. As friends, Judy, friends of ours and I sometimes had outgoings together and lovingly shared fun. Still we have maintained these activities these days.

To tell the truth, after being informed of Judy's recent incident at Myer (<---a complex department store), I really can not think of anything of consequence on the negative side of the personality ledger when it comes to Judy. Moreover, so far as I know Judy has just granted her Permanent Residence few months ago and also has been just employed by a local company as a sale assistant two months ago. Last not the least, her attention and eligibility to becoming an Australian citizen has become forthcoming. All in all, with my utmost good faith I would have to say that Judy is a fine, well-balanced person with positive qualities.

If you need any further information, please contact at 000 000 000.

Thank you.

Sincerely,
Deeky

Re: anybody to correct my English

Anonymous — Thu, 28 Feb 2008 15:16:19 GMT

It's now grammatically correct, but I still have a comment about organization. It's not obvious what country you're talking about until the middle of the article. That's quite unclear to the reader and confusing.

Survey: People Have a Feeling That Price Increase Is Much Higher Than It Really Is

People Think They Are Worse Off Than They Really Are

The average person's perception of cost of living increases is quite different from reality. Contrary to popular belief that the increase was 3.5% this year, cost of living expenses really went up by 5%. People thought last yearâs price increases were 5 times higher, when they were actually lower than in recent years.

Unemployment was estimated more realistically. The real figure was 19.2% in January, whereas people guessed 25% on average, according to a survey by the INEKO Institute.

Only one in every nine responses had a realistic view. Even in the most optimistic group of people, which was represented by the young, the university-educated, businessmen, and citizens of large cities, only about 16 â 20% estimates were accurate.

This distorted view of reality influences both peopleâs feelings and their growing dissatisfaction, and moreover, âhas a negative impact on the economy,â said Gabriel Sipos from INEKO Institute.

Psychologist Zuzana Jarossova explained that people are already born with a certain amount of pessimism.

âA born pessimist unconsciously organizes his/her life in an unsuccessful way and the loss he/she is expecting will be brought about,â Jarossova said.

Pessimism appeared right after 1989, according to Michal Vasecka, a sociologist and analyst of Institute of Public Question. It is connected with the challenges brought by the new era.

Another reason is that we compare Slovakia with the most developed countries and not with those that are at the same level, for example with Poland.

The fact that âthe rest of the world considers us as a country which is even at a lower level than Poland plays another role. This persuades Slovaks that there is something wrong,â says Vasecka.

Sipos blames the media for this "bad" mood. âThe mass media forms peopleâs behavior and expectations. It concentrates too much on the 20% unemployment, but says nothing at all about the inflation,â he said.

He said the extent of pessimism was not almost influenced by economic measures from the beginning of this year. âIn January, 85% of the respondents considered the economic situation of 2002 as worse or the same as in 2001. Similarly, it was estimated this way in October 2002, before the new government measures were introduced,â he explained.

Even the growth of real income, which was the highest in the last 5 years, did not influence the pessimism of the public.

A short writing about art. Please read and help?

Lawrence H. Song — Tue, 26 Feb 2008 11:16:15 GMT

Â Hi, if you please read and correct this, it would be great!

StartFragment>

http://mam.org/collections/printsanddrawings_detail_walker.htm

you can see the work the website. Â

EndFragment>StartFragment>StartFragment>

A Means to an End: A Shadow Drama in Five Acts (1995)

Â Despite the limitation of colorâblack and whiteâand the large negative space,Â A Means to an End: A Shadow Drama in Five ActsÂ at Parsons gallery looks active. By creating diagonal lines between figures, Kara Walker who is âa contemporary American artist who explores race, gender, sexuality, violence and identity in her work. She is best known for her room-size tableaux of black cut-paper silhouettes,â[1]Â could make not only active movements of figures but also balance and rhythm between the black shapes and the white negative space; triangle composition repeats right side up and upside down.

In addition, the artistâs color scheme itself has a strong voice in âa shadow drama.â Walkerâs message for African-American severely treated merely because of their skin color gives contrasts to black and white even more distinctly.[2]

A Means to an End: A Shadow Drama in Five ActsÂ reveals unfair treatments African-American people have gotten so directly that the audience might feel uncomfortable.Â Gwendolyn DuBois Shaw notes in his book,Â Seeing the Unspeakable:

The printÂ A Means to an End: A Shadow Drama in Five ActsÂ was deemed too controversial by the administration of the museum and its advisory group, the Friends of African and African American Art. The work consists of five connecting scenes set in a linear, rectangular format. In the first section is a half-clothed woman with a naked boy hanging from her breast, followed by the small figure of a young girl riding a fox backwards, then a woman leaping across what has been described as a river using partially submerged heads for stepping stones; next, a head and hand rise from the water, and last, a corpulent man strangles an emaciated young girl.[3]

In conclusion, not only does this set of pieces create dynamic feeling with diagonal and triangle composition, but it also succeeds in presenting political issues by means of the contrast of black and white.

[1]Â Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Walker.

[2]Â Milwaukee Art Museum. http://mam.org/collections/printsanddrawings_detail_walker.htm.

[3]Â Gwendolyn DuBois Shaw,Â Seeing the Unspeakable: The Art of Kara WalkerÂ (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 103-104.Â Â

EndFragment>

Re: Any or some

Clive — Sun, 16 Dec 2007 00:00:54 GMT

Hi,

I'm a Russian student. On the courses of interpreters in my university there was a task to put sentences into the interrogative form. One of sentences was: Ann always brings some flowers with her when she comes to the office.
I answered "Does Ann always bring some flowers...".
But my teacher said that it is "Does Ann always bring any flowers..." as by general rule some in questions is changed to any with some exceptions and this case doesn't fall under any of these exceptions.
If not "always" I would write as she said "Does Ann bring any flowers...". But "always" changes situation. I've asked 4 people who speek English well how would they write, and they said to use "some" or may be not to use any word at all, like "Does Ann always bring flowers...", but in any way they refused to put there "any".

Yes, 'some' is correct and 'any' is not correct.

Still I can't prove my teacher that I'm right as I can't find any official rule explaining use of "some" here. My explanation is that "always" changes the meaning of this sentence to checking of "does it happen sometimes or always" but the fact of her brining flowers at least sometimes is considered to be true. And there is an exception rule which states that if the subject of a question is expected to be true, then some is used. <<<<< That's true. Still she doesn't take such an explanation. How can I prove her that I'm right? Or may be I'm wrong? You're right.

'Any' is used in statements like these that really have a negative meaning. eg

She did not bring any flowers. She came without any flowers. She hardly ever brings any flowers. She never brings any flowers. Ann never brings any flowers when she comes to the office.

You certainly can't say 'Does Ann always bring any flowers?', but you can say 'Does Ann never bring any flowers?', because it makes a question that has a negative meaning. When you use 'always', you are not forming a question that has a negative meaning.

Best wishes, Clive

PleasePlease proofread my report

Anonymous — Mon, 10 Dec 2007 03:49:29 GMT

Hey, sorry to repost, but the other came out really difficult to read so i have delete tables etc. Could someone please proof-read my work. I am dyslexia and find proof-checking my work near impossible. It is long but will probably only be stupid mistakes.

***

Introduction

Due to social and media pressures the ideal body shape is becoming thinner and this contributes to eating disorders in both males and females Harrison & Cantor (1997).

Anorexia nervosa is defined by the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) as being 15% under recommended weight for height, age and gender. The patient also has to have a distorted body view and a drive to become thin.

Gordon, (2000) states the ratio of females suffering from an eating disorder compared to males at 9-1. He recognises a gender difference in eating disorders but urges people to acknowledge the existence of the male sufferers. He describes a male patient had visiting a doctor, who had replied to the patients anorexia as âa problem that only happens to girlsâ. He claims that being labelled as suffering with a âfemaleâ disorder can lead to the male feeling ashamed and emasculated and therefore more hesitant to get help, and for this reason some believe that male anorexia is largely unreported. Gordon claims this feeling of shame is enhanced when even female anorexics are judgemental at group therapy.

This negative attitude towards male anorexia causes health risks. It may result in professionals and the males themselves not recognising their early symptoms and therefore may develop chronic anorexia nervosa before they are diagnosed. (Margo, 1987, cited in BMA publication 2000)

Whitney et al (2005) studies individual experiences of people who carers of anorexic people. The femalesâ reports were more emotional than the males who appeared to be less attached with a less sympathetic viewpoint, suggesting males have a more negative attitude towards anorexia nervosa than females do.

Support that males have unhealthy eating patterns in addition to females comes from Forman-Hoffman (2004) who conducted a study involving 9,118 adolescents, 7.3% of females and 3.1% of males reported unhealthy eating patterns over the previous week.

However, theory correlates with the attitudes as many eating disorder theories are specific to women. For example some psychoanalysists argue that anorexia nervosa is developed during whilst females experience separation anxiety from their mothers. (Darvell, BMA, 2000)

Literature on male anorexia nervosa is limited and there does not appear to be any prior research into the difference between attitudes towards male anorexia nervosa and gender. Furthermore, there appears to be a fair amount of ignorance when it comes to male anorexia nervosa, present in medical professionals as well as psychological theories not even accepting its existence might be suggesting that additional education about male anorexia needs to be put into place.

To clarify an attitude is a negative, positive or neural feeling towards an âattitude objectâ, which does not have to be a physical object; it could be an event for example. Attitudes are formed by affective and cognitive responses and behavioural intentions. The following study only examines explicit attitudes, which are attitudes which are self-reported, which can be easily measured on a likert scale.

The aim of this study is to investigate the different attitudes towards male anorexia nervosa between males and females by use of a questionnaire will remain reliable over time.

The hypothesis for this study is gender will affect attitudes towards males suffering from anorexia nervosa.

Method

50 male and 50 female students were selected by opportunity sampling to be participants for the study. Each participant was asked to fill out two questionnaires a week apart. The males were either part of a university football club or an engineering society, while the females were psychology students.

A 5-point likert scale was used.. The questionnaire used 18 affective, 18 behavioural and 14 cognitive. 25 of the questions were testing for a negative attitude, and 25 for a positive attitude.

The first questionnaire conducted had 50 questions but after the analysis had been carried out questions were removed from the questionnaire. Below is a table showing the removed items and why they were removed.

The overall design was a survey. The independent variables (IVs) of this study were gender of the participant and which questionnaire was completed. Gender is a between subjects IV, which has two levels; male and female. Which questionnaire completed is within subject IV, as each participant completed both questionnaires. This IV has two levels, the first questionnaire and the second questionnaire. The dependent variable (DV) is the scores on the questionnaire. The predictor variable (PV) in this study was the scores of the first questionnaire, while the criterion variable (CV) in this study was the scores of the second questionnaire.

The participantsâ details were anonymous and were only identified by their mothersâ maiden name and consent was gained from all participants involved who were briefed beforehand and understood that they could withdraw at any time.

First a questionnaire was constructed by brainstorming statements indicated positive and negative attitudes towards male anorexia nervosa and a mixture of affective, behavioural and cognitive, (18,18,14 respectively) with 25 negative attitude questions and 25 positive attitude was deliberately used. Then the questionnaire was typed up with a 5-point likert scale, with the options of â1. Strongly Disagreeâ, â2. Disagreeâ, â3. Neither Agree Nor Disagreeâ â4. Agreeâ â5. Strongly Agreeâ beneath each question. A brief and a form of keeping the participants details anonymous by using their motherâs maiden name, was also constructed and then potential participants were approached and asked to partake in the study. Once 50 male students and 50 female students had completed the questionnaire the results were coded into numbers as shown above. Then the negative attitude questions were recoded so that 5=1, 4=2, 3=3, 2=4 and 1=5, and then the questionnaires were both qualitatively and quantitatively analysed.

Qualitative analysis was done by looking at the questionnairesâ results and seeing if there was any reason why any particular question shouldnât be there. For example, if most people selected âneither agree nor disagreeâ then the question clearly did not serve its purpose. Quantitative analysis involved looking at the mean, and deleting any items which lay considerably outside 2.5-3.5 margins. Any items with a significantly larger standard deviation or lower correlation figures were also deleted. Then with the questions deleted new quantitative analysis was conducted to check that the results were significant. Then the questionnaire was handed out to the same participants to complete. The second set of data was then reanalysed and a t-test was carried out to compare the totals of each participant for either questionnaire to check the questionnaire was reliable over time, and Leveneâs test was perform to check for a homogeneity of variance. None of the participants where told we were comparing male and female attitudes until after the questionnaires were completed at which point they could disagree for their data to be used.

Results

The item means statistics are as would be expected when testing two opposing attitudes on a 5-point likert scale. From table 2 it is clear that all the means and standard deviations are similar. With the standard deviation being around 1. The item means are as they should be, with the mean around 3, (M = 3.137) with a few deviations, (Range = 1.290, Variance = 0.124,) no items having a mean of much less than 2.5, (Min = 2.470), or much higher than three point five, (Max = 3.760). The item variance is fairly low (M=1.011) and deviates little (Range = 0.634, Variance = 0.33)

These show similar results to those found in the 1^st questionnaire. Standard deviation are around 1. Means are around 3, (M = 3.128) with a few deviations, (Range = 1.320, Variance = 0.136,) These very similar results would suggest that the questionnaire had consistency over time; however this is tested for and discussed further later.

Reliability analysis of 1^st and 2^nd questionnaires

A reliability analysis of the items of the first questionnaire was performed to explore to what extent the scale was internally consistent. The results showed strong internal consistency in both questionnaires (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.891). The result suggest that the scale is not unidimensional (Inter-Item Correlation = 0.289) Similar findings were found with the reliability analysis of the second questionnaire, there was a similar strong internal consistency (Cronbrachâs Alpha = 0.882) and the scale still appeared to be multidimensional (Inter-Item Correlation = 0.270)

Test-Retest Reliability

The results above show that both tests are internally consistent but to discover if the test was consistent over time a test-retest correlational analysis was conducted, scores from the same individuals, on the same items on both questionnaires should be similar to indicate reliability over time. Each participantsâ total score was calculated for questionnaire one and questionnaire two and then the relationship between the two variables was examined. A significant strong correlation between scores on the two questionnaires was found (R = 0.949, p = 0.001). These results indicate that the test was reliable over time. The strong correlation between the two tests is illustrated below in a scatter-graph.

The hypothesis for this study was 1-tailed. The females scored a mean of 70.04 while males scored a mean of 55.06. An independent t-test was conducted to explore the influence gender had on attitudes towards male anorexia. A Leveneâs test of homogeneity of variance was carried out and found to be non-significant (p = 0.183) and therefore it can be assumed that there are no significant differences between variances. Gender was shown to have a significant effect on attitudes towards male anorexia, (df = 98, t = 8.045, p = 0.001).

Discussion

To summarize the results, internal consistency and consistency over time were present in the questionnaires; homogeneity of variance was assumed an independent t-test yielded significant results indicating that there is a difference between male and female attitudes towards male anorexia with males holding the negative viewpoint, while the average female has a more positive attitude towards male anorexics. This is supports the hypothesis that gender affects attitudes towards male anorexic.

Although these findings are highly significant it would be beneficial to conduct research where the scale was unidimensional as opposed to multidimensional.

These results support that Gordonâs viewpoint (2000) was correct that males suffering with anorexia nervosa are stigmatised, however Gordon also expected females to have negative attitudes towards anorexic males which this study does not find supportive evidence for. To ensure that it is not just female anorexics that stigmatise male anorexics a study could be conducted to investigate the difference between female who are suffering with anorexia nervosa and females who are not.

Negative attitudes towards male anorexia may be due to males being undereducated about anorexia as the condition is mainly associated with females. These results could be the consequence of a lack of media coverage. Female bias in academic publications about male anorexia may also contribute (Darvell, 2000). According to Margo, (1987) this will indirectly cause anorexic males health to become worse.

All the participants where students, with no mature students included, which served as a control, however further research to see if the results can be generalised would be worthwhile.

All the participants completed the questionnaires in similar conditions and the use of a questionnaire meant all the questions were standardised. Opportunity sampling was a suitable method for this study due to limitations on time, and the results were highly significant, but if a random sampling method was used for similar research in the future it would reduce possible criticisms. Because none of the participants where told we were comparing male and female attitudes until after the questionnaires were completed, the likelihood of demand characteristics was minimised.

To conclude, the results show a significant difference between male and female attitudes towards anorexia. Males showed a more negative attitude. The questionnaires internal consistency and reliability over time, along with homogeneity of variance of the results can all be assumed. The negative attitudes theorists suggest could be affecting the sufferersâ physical and mental health (Margo, 1980; Gordon, 2000) so it is a vitally important area of study to as evidence will in itself raise awareness and encourage other means of doing so